Posted on Jul 17, 2021
Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
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On July 17, 1762, Catherine II became tsarina of Russia following the murder of Peter III. An excerpt from the article:
"Catherine the Great (or Catherine II) converted to Orthodoxy, changed her name, and married the Grand Duke Peter in 1745. Though Catherine had the support of Peter's mother, the Empress Elizabeth, she disliked her husband—Catherine later wrote she had been more interested in the crown than the person—and first Peter and then Catherine were unfaithful.
Her first son Paul later emperor (or czar) of Russia as Paul I, was born nine years into the marriage, and some question whether his father was Catherine's husband. Her second child, daughter Anna, was likely fathered by Stanislaw Poniatowski. Her youngest child Alexei was most likely the son of Grigory Orlov. All three were officially recorded, however, as Peter's children.
Empress Catherine
When Czarina Elizabeth died at the end of 1761, Peter became ruler as Peter III and Catherine became the empress consort. She considered fleeing, as many thought that Peter would divorce her, but Peter's actions as emperor soon led to a coup against him. Military, church, and government leaders removed Peter from the throne, planning to install Paul, then 7 years old, as his replacement. Catherine, however, with the help of her lover Orlov won over the military in St. Petersburg and gained the throne for herself in 1762, later naming Paul as her heir. Soon after, she may have been behind Peter's death.
Her early years as empress were devoted to gaining the support of the military and nobility to strengthen her claim as empress. She had her ministers carry out domestic and foreign policies designed to establish stability and peace; instituted reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, a philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries; and updated Russia's legal system to provide equality of people under the law."
"Catherine the Great (or Catherine II) converted to Orthodoxy, changed her name, and married the Grand Duke Peter in 1745. Though Catherine had the support of Peter's mother, the Empress Elizabeth, she disliked her husband—Catherine later wrote she had been more interested in the crown than the person—and first Peter and then Catherine were unfaithful.
Her first son Paul later emperor (or czar) of Russia as Paul I, was born nine years into the marriage, and some question whether his father was Catherine's husband. Her second child, daughter Anna, was likely fathered by Stanislaw Poniatowski. Her youngest child Alexei was most likely the son of Grigory Orlov. All three were officially recorded, however, as Peter's children.
Empress Catherine
When Czarina Elizabeth died at the end of 1761, Peter became ruler as Peter III and Catherine became the empress consort. She considered fleeing, as many thought that Peter would divorce her, but Peter's actions as emperor soon led to a coup against him. Military, church, and government leaders removed Peter from the throne, planning to install Paul, then 7 years old, as his replacement. Catherine, however, with the help of her lover Orlov won over the military in St. Petersburg and gained the throne for herself in 1762, later naming Paul as her heir. Soon after, she may have been behind Peter's death.
Her early years as empress were devoted to gaining the support of the military and nobility to strengthen her claim as empress. She had her ministers carry out domestic and foreign policies designed to establish stability and peace; instituted reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, a philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries; and updated Russia's legal system to provide equality of people under the law."
Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
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Catherine the Great: Russia’s Greatest Empress
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Catherine the Great: Russia’s Greatest Empress
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rs-sDMqBC6c
Images;
1. Allegory of Catherine’s Victory over the Turks (1772) – Stefano Torelli.
2. Young Catherine soon after her arrival in Russia, by Louis Caravaque
3. Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
4. Catherine II walking in Tsarskoye Selo Park (with Chesma Column behind) by Vladimir Borovikovskiy
Background from {[ https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great/}]
Prominent Russians: Catherine II the Great
May 2, 1729 - November 6, 1796
Recognized worldwide as a noteworthy historical figure, Catherine the Great was one of the most prominent rulers of Russia and a figure deserving of admiration. During her rule from 1762 to 1796 the Russian Empress Catherine II made such progress in political power that it is hard to find similar examples in world history. She expanded the territory of the Russian Empire and improved its administration, following the policy of Westernization. She was reputed to be an "enlightened despot," however she was also praised for her generosity and humanity. Many historians associate her with all the significant events and trends in Russia's expanding world role. Though she always rejected the appellation "the Great," it endured. She was often compared to Peter the Great. One of her contemporaries described the essence of her rule, saying that Peter the Great created people in Russia, and Catherine put her heart into them. She reformed Russia gradually and calmly finished what Peter had done forcibly. Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky described the different approaches of these two outstanding sovereigns as follows: the Russian man wanted Russians to become Germans, and the German lady tried to make them Russians again.
Early years
Sophia Frederica Augusta was born in Germany, in the city of Stettin in Prussian Pomerania, on 2 May 1729 into the family of Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She spent her youth, which she always remembered with pleasure, in an atmosphere of intelligence, passion for knowledge and good humor, but also austerity. Her father was very religious and strict. He enjoyed the title of prince, but was also a commanding officer of a regiment of the Prussian army. Catherine’s mother, Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was very self-willed. She originated from the family of Holstein-Gottorp and was related to the monarchs of Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. She brought Catherine up in a most severe manner. Later Catherine herself recollected that she was always ready to get a slap in the face from her mother. Princess Sophia spent her childhood in Stettin and Zerbst. She occasionally visited Hamburg with her mother and spent her summers in Brunswick and Berlin.
Marriage to the heir of the Russian throne
In 1743, she was introduced into the Lutheran Church at the desire of her mother, though she easily changed her religion to the Russian Orthodox faith right before her marriage to the Russian Prince Peter. Her parents were very concerned that their daughter marry and make a good match.
In 1744 Catherine’s mother received an invitation from Empress Elizabeth of Russia to visit the country with her daughter, which meant she was planning to marry the heir to the Russian throne, Peter, to Catherine. However, Catherine had already met her husband to-be, who was one of her cousins. He was only 11 when they were introduced, but he was already reputed to be addicted to alcohol. Catherine didn’t experience any affection for her cousin, but was ready to obey her parents’ decision. Moreover, she realized that marrying the heir to the Russian throne would open the door to a most brilliant life, so coveted by the young and ambitious princess. Sophia and her mother made a journey to Russia in the winter of 1744, where she was converted to Orthodoxy and renamed Catherine. She was one year younger than Peter Fedorovich, the nephew of Elizabeth, the then reigning monarch of Russia. Their marriage was decided upon by their respective families.
The two were absolutely incompatible with each other. Still, Catherine tried to keep up appearances in front of the court and was patient with her silly and eccentric husband, as long as such pretence served her ambitious purposes. These two people unfortunately brought together by circumstances were destined to break up. Catherine, unlike her husband, was a woman of great talent, intelligence and ambition. Her strong and masculine mind, so eager to learn, had been trained and developed with all the learning and accomplishments of the age. She came to Russia with the intention of achieving a memorable career. Her husband, on the contrary, had an unstable personality, tempestuous, devoid of talent, and his education had been totally neglected. His disposition was good, but his mind was uncultivated. He constantly felt the superiority of his more gifted spouse. To add to this, Catherine had a graceful and beautifully proportioned figure. Peter’s inferiority was the first step to their mutual dislike, which led to fatal results for Peter.
Peter soon started cheating on Catherine, and she repaid in kind having her own favorites. Whether Peter was the father of Paul and Anna, the two children recorded as their offspring, remains a murky question, as five years of marriage brought no pregnancy and some said Peter could not have children.
Favoritism
One of Catherine’s ardent passions was Sergey Saltykov, the prince’s chamberlain. He had been a favorite among the ladies of the court, and he attempted to win Catherine’s affections. A handsome man with graceful manners, Saltykov won Catherine’s love. According to some historians, Catherine was advised to conceive an heir with Saltykov, and Paul, who after Catherine’s death became Emperor Paul I, was presumably fathered by him and raised by Empress Elizabeth. Two other favorites, Grigory Orlov and Stanislaw August Poniatowski, are said to have fathered two additional children - a boy and a girl that only lived sixteen months - who were never publicly acknowledged.
Although most of these men came from distinguished families and had outstanding political careers (Stanislaw Ponyatowski, for example, became the king of Poland in 1764), none used his status close to the Empress to affect state policy, with the exception of Grigory Potemkin, with whom Catherine was deeply in love in the mid-1770s and whom, a significant number of experts believe, she married secretly in 1774. Her last favorite was said to be the young and eccentric Platon Zubov. None of the men she had ever been devoted to was devoid of his title or his fortune after his relationship with Catherine ended. On the contrary, she scattered wealth and titles among them.
Ascent to power
Although love was an important part of Catherine's life, it did not overshadow her everlasting learning process and political interests. A sharp-witted and educated young woman, she read widely, particularly in French, which was at that time the first language of educated Europeans. She liked novels, plays and verse but was particularly interested in the writings of the major figures of the French Enlightenment such as Diderot and Voltaire. She spoke German, French and Russian. Catherine worked hard to master the Russian language, though she never managed to totally lose her accent. Catherine spelled badly but read, wrote and spoke Russian well. She quickly absorbed Russian culture, mastering the customs and history of the empire. The most literate ruler in Russian history, Catherine constantly patronized cultural life; in particular a flurry of satirical journals and comedies were published anonymously with her significant participation. Extensive traveling demonstrated in Catherine a great thirst for exploring the empire. She also knew to demonstrate devotion to the Russian Orthodox faith and the Russian state.
An instinctive politician, she cultivated friendships among the court elite. But her road to the Russian throne was thorny.
When Empress Elizabeth died on 25 December 1761, her nephew Peter was proclaimed Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became Empress. Friends warned her that she might not enjoy her status for long since Peter was planning to divorce her and she was advised to flee. She decided to ignore the warning, and the wisdom of her decision was soon demonstrated. A few months after taking the throne Peter built up much hostility among government, military and church leaders. So, a group of them began plotting a coup to remove him. They wanted to place his 7-year-old son, Paul, on the throne, and name Catherine as regent until the boy should come of age.
But they underestimated Catherine's ambition; she aimed at a bigger role for herself. On 28 June 1762, with the aid of her lover Grigory Orlov, she rallied the troops of Saint Petersburg to her support and declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia, later naming Paul her heir. She had Peter arrested and forced him to sign an act of abdication. When he sought permission to leave the country, she refused it, intending to hold him prisoner for life. He had only a few days to live, though, as shortly after his arrest he was killed in a fight with his captors.
A ruler of wide interests, Catherine was involved simultaneously in diverse matters. Very hardworking, her days were mapped out to the last five-minute increments and she maintained this schedule until her death. The only thing that was subject to changes was her sleeping hours. At the height of her reign she woke up at 5 am, and as she grew older she started waking up and 6 am, which was late for her. In her Early Reign (1762-1764) Catherine had far-reaching plans regarding both domestic and foreign policy, but during the first years in power her attention was directed towards strengthening her position. She knew that a number of influential people considered her ascent to power illegal and her son, Paul, the rightful ruler. Catherine also realized that without the support of the nobility and the military she could be overthrown by a coup as quickly as she had been brought to power by one. Her reaction to this situation was to jump at every opportunity to conciliate the nobility and the military and at the same time strike sharply at those who sought to replace her with Paul.
As for general policy, Catherine understood that Russia needed an extended period of peace during which to concentrate on domestic affairs and that peace required a cautious foreign policy. The able Count Nikita Panin, whom she placed in charge of foreign affairs, was well chosen to carry out such a policy. By 1764 Catherine felt secure enough to begin work on reform (1764-1768). Her stance on the reforms placed her among the 18th-century rulers known as "enlightened despots." Influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, these monarchs thought that a wise and generous ruler, living and ruling by the dictates of reason, could ensure the well being of their people. Catherine's government followed a general policy of developing public confidence with the aim of leading Russia towards full and equal membership in Europe. She expanded the Senate in 1762, bolstered the office of Procurator-General in 1763 and 1764 she incorporated Ukraine into the empire by abolishing a self-governed Cossack community in Southern Ukraine centered at the Dnieper River that had its own political and administrative center, the hetmanship, also known as hetmanate.
It was in the spirit of the Enlightenment that Catherine carried out her first major reform, that of Russia's legal system, which was based on the old and inefficient Code of Laws, dating from 1649. For more than two years, inspired by the writings of Montesquieu and the Italian jurist Beccaria, she worked on the "Instruction," a set of guidelines for those entrusted with reforming the legal system. This work became widely known in Europe and caused a sensation because it called for a legal system way ahead of its time. It proposed a system providing equal protection under the law for all persons and emphasized prevention of criminal acts rather than harsh punishment for them. In June 1767 the Empress created the Legislative Commission to revise the old laws in accordance with the "Instruction." The Commission was a body consisting of delegates from almost all levels of society except for the serfs, the lowest class. Like many others, Catherine had great expectations about what the Commission might accomplish, but unfortunately, the delegates devoted most of their time exposing their own grievances, rather than focusing on the job. Consequently, despite the year-long series of sessions, they made no progress, and Catherine suspended the meetings at the end of 1768. The fact that she never reconvened the Commission has been interpreted by some historians as an indication that she had lost faith in the delegates. Others feel, however, that she was more interested in having the reputation of being an "enlightened" ruler than in actually being one. According to some sources she was strongly opposed to serfdom, but preferred not to arouse the nobility’s discontent, as she needed their support.
Foreign and domestic affairs
In the meantime, foreign affairs began to demand Catherine's close attention.
Catherine attempted to increase Russia's power at the expense of its weaker neighbors, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. She sent troops to help the Polish king Stanislaw (Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Catherine’s former lover) in suppressing a nationalist revolt aimed at reducing Russia's influence in Poland. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 resulted in bringing Southern Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus and the Crimea under the possession of the Russian Empire. The war broke out as a result of an internal conflict within Poland. A squadron of Cossacks in Russian service entered Balta (in Ottoman territory) during the pursuit of a Polish Bar Confederation force. The Ottoman Empire accused the troops of having murdered its subjects in the town of Balta. The Russian authorities denied the charge. Following this border incident the Turkish Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, who offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy. Thus in 1772 Austria and Russia annexed Polish territory in the First Partition of Poland. Two years later, after long-lasting negotiations, Catherine concluded peace with Turkey, getting relatively modest but nonetheless important gains. Russia received as a territorial concession its first foothold on the Black Sea coast, and Russian merchant ships were allowed to sail in the Black Sea and through the Dardanelles.
Even before the conclusion of peace with the Turks, Catherine had to face a revolt led by the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev. It proved to be the most odious internal threat she ever faced. The rebel leader claimed to be the deposed Emperor Peter III, as his death certificate was fabricated. Pugachev, posing as a wealthy merchant, reportedly tested the feelings of the Cossacks at the Yaik (a river, nowadays called the Ural and known as Yaik before 1775, flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan) by suggesting that he lead a mass exodus into Turkey. When the majority seemed to agree to his plan, he thought it was the right time to begin his revolt. Though he was arrested shortly after and held for five months at Kazan, he would escape and return to the Yaik to start his revolt. By promising to return several privileges to the Cossacks and to restore the Old Belief, he was able to gain the support he needed to promote his identity as Peter III. Soon tens of thousands were following him and the uprising, which started in the south and spread up the Volga River, moved within threatening range of Moscow. Pugachev's defeat required several major expeditions by the imperial forces, and a feeling of security returned to the government only after his capture late in 1774. After the rebellion Catherine had the Yaik Cossaks renamed Ural Cossacks and the Yaik River, the Ural River.
The revolt was a major landmark in Catherine's reign. Deeply alarmed by it, she concluded, along with most of the aristocracy, that the best safeguard against rebellion would be the strengthening of the local administrative authority of the nobility rather than measures to improve the conditions of the lower classes.
With regards to foreign affairs, Catherine gradually came to believe that it would be possible to strip Turkey of both Constantinople and its European possessions if only Austria would join Russia in the assault. And, having gained Austria’s support, she began to conduct a policy so aggressive towards Turkey that in 1787 the Sultan finally declared war on Russia. As in past encounters, Russian forces proved superior, but they required four years to totally defeat the Turks. By the Treaty of Jassy (1792) Catherine won from Turkey a large area on the Black Sea coast and gained Turkish agreement to Russia's annexation of the Crimean Peninsula. But she was not able to fulfill her original plan of annexing Constantinople and Turkey's European territory, since Austria had withdrawn its support for this action and other powers strongly opposed it. While the Russo-Turkish War was in progress, Polish nationalists again tried to strengthen the Polish state and end Russian influence within it. As before, their efforts were fruitless, leading only to another disaster for their unfortunate country – the Second Partition of Poland (1793), in which Russia and Prussia annexed Polish territory; and the Third Partition (1795), in which Russia, Austria and Prussia divided what remained of an independent Poland.
In her domestic policy, Catherine owes much of her glory to her accomplishments in the dozen years following the Pugachev uprising, when she devoted her time and talent to the administrative operation of the government. Her reorganization in 1775 of the provincial administration – in such a way as to favor the nobility – passed the test of time but her reorganization of municipal government 10 years later was not so successful.
Catherine devoted much attention to expanding the country's educational facilities. She gave serious consideration to various plans and in 1786 adopted one providing for a large-scale educational system. Unfortunately she was unable to carry out the entire plan. But she did add a number of the country's elementary and secondary schools, while some of the remaining points of her plan were carried out by her successors.
Another one of Catherine's chief domestic concerns was the enhancement of Russia's economic strength. To this end she encouraged trade by lifting various restrictions and promoting the development of under-populated areas by attracting both Russians and foreigners to settle there.
The arts and sciences received much attention during Catherine's reign not only because she believed them to be important as such, but also because she saw them as a means by which Russia could acquire a reputation as a center of civilization. Under her direction Saint Petersburg was partly rebuilt and became one of the world's most dazzling capitals. With her encouragement, theater, music and painting flourished, while, under her patronage, the Academy of Sciences reached new heights. During her reign Saint Petersburg became one of the major cultural centers of Europe. In 1768 she founded the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books into Russian, superseded in 1782 by the Russian Academy, which sponsored a comprehensive dictionary between 1788 and 1796. Most strikingly, she founded the Hermitage, a museum annex to the Winter Palace, to house burgeoning collections of European paintings and other masterpieces of art.
As she grew older, Catherine became greatly concerned because her heir, Paul, who had long displayed violent and unpredictable extremes of emotion, was becoming so unsettled and erratic that she doubted he would make a fit successor to the throne. She considered disclaiming him as heir and naming his oldest son, Aleksandr, as her successor. But before she was able to change her original arrangement, she died of a stroke on 6 November 1796.
During her reign the territory of Russia increased significantly: out of 50 provinces 11 were acquired while she was in power. The population of the country grew almost twofold. She ordered 144 new cities and towns built, founding more than four cities per year of her reign. Russia also saw a flood of European immigrants. She boosted twofold the strength of the Russian army and increased more than threefold the number of lead ships of the Russian fleet. Her army and the fleet triumphantly came out victorious 78 times strengthening Russia’s position in the world.
Although very ambitious, she never exaggerated her significance for Russia, saying that whatever she had done was a drop in the ocean. Her close friends described her as a very good-looking woman throughout her entire life and appreciated her amiability, noble simplicity and tact. She was said to prefer to praise loudly, but to scold quietly.
In an epitaph to be inscribed on her grave, which she wrote long before she died, Catherine perhaps best surmised herself: “Catherine II rests here. She came to Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of 14 she took a three-sided decision: to enchant her husband, Empress Elizabeth and the people of Russia. And she used every single chance to succeed in this. Eighteen years of loneliness and boredom made her read many books. As she mounted to the Russian throne she did her best to give her people happiness, freedom and wellbeing. She forgave people easily and hated nobody. She was charitable, good-tempered and loved life. She was a true republican in her politics and was kind-hearted. She had friends. She worked easily. She loved social life and the arts.
Written by Yulia Bokova, RT Correspondent
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Catherine the Great: Russia’s Greatest Empress
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rs-sDMqBC6c
Images;
1. Allegory of Catherine’s Victory over the Turks (1772) – Stefano Torelli.
2. Young Catherine soon after her arrival in Russia, by Louis Caravaque
3. Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
4. Catherine II walking in Tsarskoye Selo Park (with Chesma Column behind) by Vladimir Borovikovskiy
Background from {[ https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great/}]
Prominent Russians: Catherine II the Great
May 2, 1729 - November 6, 1796
Recognized worldwide as a noteworthy historical figure, Catherine the Great was one of the most prominent rulers of Russia and a figure deserving of admiration. During her rule from 1762 to 1796 the Russian Empress Catherine II made such progress in political power that it is hard to find similar examples in world history. She expanded the territory of the Russian Empire and improved its administration, following the policy of Westernization. She was reputed to be an "enlightened despot," however she was also praised for her generosity and humanity. Many historians associate her with all the significant events and trends in Russia's expanding world role. Though she always rejected the appellation "the Great," it endured. She was often compared to Peter the Great. One of her contemporaries described the essence of her rule, saying that Peter the Great created people in Russia, and Catherine put her heart into them. She reformed Russia gradually and calmly finished what Peter had done forcibly. Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky described the different approaches of these two outstanding sovereigns as follows: the Russian man wanted Russians to become Germans, and the German lady tried to make them Russians again.
Early years
Sophia Frederica Augusta was born in Germany, in the city of Stettin in Prussian Pomerania, on 2 May 1729 into the family of Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She spent her youth, which she always remembered with pleasure, in an atmosphere of intelligence, passion for knowledge and good humor, but also austerity. Her father was very religious and strict. He enjoyed the title of prince, but was also a commanding officer of a regiment of the Prussian army. Catherine’s mother, Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was very self-willed. She originated from the family of Holstein-Gottorp and was related to the monarchs of Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. She brought Catherine up in a most severe manner. Later Catherine herself recollected that she was always ready to get a slap in the face from her mother. Princess Sophia spent her childhood in Stettin and Zerbst. She occasionally visited Hamburg with her mother and spent her summers in Brunswick and Berlin.
Marriage to the heir of the Russian throne
In 1743, she was introduced into the Lutheran Church at the desire of her mother, though she easily changed her religion to the Russian Orthodox faith right before her marriage to the Russian Prince Peter. Her parents were very concerned that their daughter marry and make a good match.
In 1744 Catherine’s mother received an invitation from Empress Elizabeth of Russia to visit the country with her daughter, which meant she was planning to marry the heir to the Russian throne, Peter, to Catherine. However, Catherine had already met her husband to-be, who was one of her cousins. He was only 11 when they were introduced, but he was already reputed to be addicted to alcohol. Catherine didn’t experience any affection for her cousin, but was ready to obey her parents’ decision. Moreover, she realized that marrying the heir to the Russian throne would open the door to a most brilliant life, so coveted by the young and ambitious princess. Sophia and her mother made a journey to Russia in the winter of 1744, where she was converted to Orthodoxy and renamed Catherine. She was one year younger than Peter Fedorovich, the nephew of Elizabeth, the then reigning monarch of Russia. Their marriage was decided upon by their respective families.
The two were absolutely incompatible with each other. Still, Catherine tried to keep up appearances in front of the court and was patient with her silly and eccentric husband, as long as such pretence served her ambitious purposes. These two people unfortunately brought together by circumstances were destined to break up. Catherine, unlike her husband, was a woman of great talent, intelligence and ambition. Her strong and masculine mind, so eager to learn, had been trained and developed with all the learning and accomplishments of the age. She came to Russia with the intention of achieving a memorable career. Her husband, on the contrary, had an unstable personality, tempestuous, devoid of talent, and his education had been totally neglected. His disposition was good, but his mind was uncultivated. He constantly felt the superiority of his more gifted spouse. To add to this, Catherine had a graceful and beautifully proportioned figure. Peter’s inferiority was the first step to their mutual dislike, which led to fatal results for Peter.
Peter soon started cheating on Catherine, and she repaid in kind having her own favorites. Whether Peter was the father of Paul and Anna, the two children recorded as their offspring, remains a murky question, as five years of marriage brought no pregnancy and some said Peter could not have children.
Favoritism
One of Catherine’s ardent passions was Sergey Saltykov, the prince’s chamberlain. He had been a favorite among the ladies of the court, and he attempted to win Catherine’s affections. A handsome man with graceful manners, Saltykov won Catherine’s love. According to some historians, Catherine was advised to conceive an heir with Saltykov, and Paul, who after Catherine’s death became Emperor Paul I, was presumably fathered by him and raised by Empress Elizabeth. Two other favorites, Grigory Orlov and Stanislaw August Poniatowski, are said to have fathered two additional children - a boy and a girl that only lived sixteen months - who were never publicly acknowledged.
Although most of these men came from distinguished families and had outstanding political careers (Stanislaw Ponyatowski, for example, became the king of Poland in 1764), none used his status close to the Empress to affect state policy, with the exception of Grigory Potemkin, with whom Catherine was deeply in love in the mid-1770s and whom, a significant number of experts believe, she married secretly in 1774. Her last favorite was said to be the young and eccentric Platon Zubov. None of the men she had ever been devoted to was devoid of his title or his fortune after his relationship with Catherine ended. On the contrary, she scattered wealth and titles among them.
Ascent to power
Although love was an important part of Catherine's life, it did not overshadow her everlasting learning process and political interests. A sharp-witted and educated young woman, she read widely, particularly in French, which was at that time the first language of educated Europeans. She liked novels, plays and verse but was particularly interested in the writings of the major figures of the French Enlightenment such as Diderot and Voltaire. She spoke German, French and Russian. Catherine worked hard to master the Russian language, though she never managed to totally lose her accent. Catherine spelled badly but read, wrote and spoke Russian well. She quickly absorbed Russian culture, mastering the customs and history of the empire. The most literate ruler in Russian history, Catherine constantly patronized cultural life; in particular a flurry of satirical journals and comedies were published anonymously with her significant participation. Extensive traveling demonstrated in Catherine a great thirst for exploring the empire. She also knew to demonstrate devotion to the Russian Orthodox faith and the Russian state.
An instinctive politician, she cultivated friendships among the court elite. But her road to the Russian throne was thorny.
When Empress Elizabeth died on 25 December 1761, her nephew Peter was proclaimed Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became Empress. Friends warned her that she might not enjoy her status for long since Peter was planning to divorce her and she was advised to flee. She decided to ignore the warning, and the wisdom of her decision was soon demonstrated. A few months after taking the throne Peter built up much hostility among government, military and church leaders. So, a group of them began plotting a coup to remove him. They wanted to place his 7-year-old son, Paul, on the throne, and name Catherine as regent until the boy should come of age.
But they underestimated Catherine's ambition; she aimed at a bigger role for herself. On 28 June 1762, with the aid of her lover Grigory Orlov, she rallied the troops of Saint Petersburg to her support and declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia, later naming Paul her heir. She had Peter arrested and forced him to sign an act of abdication. When he sought permission to leave the country, she refused it, intending to hold him prisoner for life. He had only a few days to live, though, as shortly after his arrest he was killed in a fight with his captors.
A ruler of wide interests, Catherine was involved simultaneously in diverse matters. Very hardworking, her days were mapped out to the last five-minute increments and she maintained this schedule until her death. The only thing that was subject to changes was her sleeping hours. At the height of her reign she woke up at 5 am, and as she grew older she started waking up and 6 am, which was late for her. In her Early Reign (1762-1764) Catherine had far-reaching plans regarding both domestic and foreign policy, but during the first years in power her attention was directed towards strengthening her position. She knew that a number of influential people considered her ascent to power illegal and her son, Paul, the rightful ruler. Catherine also realized that without the support of the nobility and the military she could be overthrown by a coup as quickly as she had been brought to power by one. Her reaction to this situation was to jump at every opportunity to conciliate the nobility and the military and at the same time strike sharply at those who sought to replace her with Paul.
As for general policy, Catherine understood that Russia needed an extended period of peace during which to concentrate on domestic affairs and that peace required a cautious foreign policy. The able Count Nikita Panin, whom she placed in charge of foreign affairs, was well chosen to carry out such a policy. By 1764 Catherine felt secure enough to begin work on reform (1764-1768). Her stance on the reforms placed her among the 18th-century rulers known as "enlightened despots." Influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, these monarchs thought that a wise and generous ruler, living and ruling by the dictates of reason, could ensure the well being of their people. Catherine's government followed a general policy of developing public confidence with the aim of leading Russia towards full and equal membership in Europe. She expanded the Senate in 1762, bolstered the office of Procurator-General in 1763 and 1764 she incorporated Ukraine into the empire by abolishing a self-governed Cossack community in Southern Ukraine centered at the Dnieper River that had its own political and administrative center, the hetmanship, also known as hetmanate.
It was in the spirit of the Enlightenment that Catherine carried out her first major reform, that of Russia's legal system, which was based on the old and inefficient Code of Laws, dating from 1649. For more than two years, inspired by the writings of Montesquieu and the Italian jurist Beccaria, she worked on the "Instruction," a set of guidelines for those entrusted with reforming the legal system. This work became widely known in Europe and caused a sensation because it called for a legal system way ahead of its time. It proposed a system providing equal protection under the law for all persons and emphasized prevention of criminal acts rather than harsh punishment for them. In June 1767 the Empress created the Legislative Commission to revise the old laws in accordance with the "Instruction." The Commission was a body consisting of delegates from almost all levels of society except for the serfs, the lowest class. Like many others, Catherine had great expectations about what the Commission might accomplish, but unfortunately, the delegates devoted most of their time exposing their own grievances, rather than focusing on the job. Consequently, despite the year-long series of sessions, they made no progress, and Catherine suspended the meetings at the end of 1768. The fact that she never reconvened the Commission has been interpreted by some historians as an indication that she had lost faith in the delegates. Others feel, however, that she was more interested in having the reputation of being an "enlightened" ruler than in actually being one. According to some sources she was strongly opposed to serfdom, but preferred not to arouse the nobility’s discontent, as she needed their support.
Foreign and domestic affairs
In the meantime, foreign affairs began to demand Catherine's close attention.
Catherine attempted to increase Russia's power at the expense of its weaker neighbors, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. She sent troops to help the Polish king Stanislaw (Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Catherine’s former lover) in suppressing a nationalist revolt aimed at reducing Russia's influence in Poland. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 resulted in bringing Southern Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus and the Crimea under the possession of the Russian Empire. The war broke out as a result of an internal conflict within Poland. A squadron of Cossacks in Russian service entered Balta (in Ottoman territory) during the pursuit of a Polish Bar Confederation force. The Ottoman Empire accused the troops of having murdered its subjects in the town of Balta. The Russian authorities denied the charge. Following this border incident the Turkish Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, who offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy. Thus in 1772 Austria and Russia annexed Polish territory in the First Partition of Poland. Two years later, after long-lasting negotiations, Catherine concluded peace with Turkey, getting relatively modest but nonetheless important gains. Russia received as a territorial concession its first foothold on the Black Sea coast, and Russian merchant ships were allowed to sail in the Black Sea and through the Dardanelles.
Even before the conclusion of peace with the Turks, Catherine had to face a revolt led by the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev. It proved to be the most odious internal threat she ever faced. The rebel leader claimed to be the deposed Emperor Peter III, as his death certificate was fabricated. Pugachev, posing as a wealthy merchant, reportedly tested the feelings of the Cossacks at the Yaik (a river, nowadays called the Ural and known as Yaik before 1775, flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan) by suggesting that he lead a mass exodus into Turkey. When the majority seemed to agree to his plan, he thought it was the right time to begin his revolt. Though he was arrested shortly after and held for five months at Kazan, he would escape and return to the Yaik to start his revolt. By promising to return several privileges to the Cossacks and to restore the Old Belief, he was able to gain the support he needed to promote his identity as Peter III. Soon tens of thousands were following him and the uprising, which started in the south and spread up the Volga River, moved within threatening range of Moscow. Pugachev's defeat required several major expeditions by the imperial forces, and a feeling of security returned to the government only after his capture late in 1774. After the rebellion Catherine had the Yaik Cossaks renamed Ural Cossacks and the Yaik River, the Ural River.
The revolt was a major landmark in Catherine's reign. Deeply alarmed by it, she concluded, along with most of the aristocracy, that the best safeguard against rebellion would be the strengthening of the local administrative authority of the nobility rather than measures to improve the conditions of the lower classes.
With regards to foreign affairs, Catherine gradually came to believe that it would be possible to strip Turkey of both Constantinople and its European possessions if only Austria would join Russia in the assault. And, having gained Austria’s support, she began to conduct a policy so aggressive towards Turkey that in 1787 the Sultan finally declared war on Russia. As in past encounters, Russian forces proved superior, but they required four years to totally defeat the Turks. By the Treaty of Jassy (1792) Catherine won from Turkey a large area on the Black Sea coast and gained Turkish agreement to Russia's annexation of the Crimean Peninsula. But she was not able to fulfill her original plan of annexing Constantinople and Turkey's European territory, since Austria had withdrawn its support for this action and other powers strongly opposed it. While the Russo-Turkish War was in progress, Polish nationalists again tried to strengthen the Polish state and end Russian influence within it. As before, their efforts were fruitless, leading only to another disaster for their unfortunate country – the Second Partition of Poland (1793), in which Russia and Prussia annexed Polish territory; and the Third Partition (1795), in which Russia, Austria and Prussia divided what remained of an independent Poland.
In her domestic policy, Catherine owes much of her glory to her accomplishments in the dozen years following the Pugachev uprising, when she devoted her time and talent to the administrative operation of the government. Her reorganization in 1775 of the provincial administration – in such a way as to favor the nobility – passed the test of time but her reorganization of municipal government 10 years later was not so successful.
Catherine devoted much attention to expanding the country's educational facilities. She gave serious consideration to various plans and in 1786 adopted one providing for a large-scale educational system. Unfortunately she was unable to carry out the entire plan. But she did add a number of the country's elementary and secondary schools, while some of the remaining points of her plan were carried out by her successors.
Another one of Catherine's chief domestic concerns was the enhancement of Russia's economic strength. To this end she encouraged trade by lifting various restrictions and promoting the development of under-populated areas by attracting both Russians and foreigners to settle there.
The arts and sciences received much attention during Catherine's reign not only because she believed them to be important as such, but also because she saw them as a means by which Russia could acquire a reputation as a center of civilization. Under her direction Saint Petersburg was partly rebuilt and became one of the world's most dazzling capitals. With her encouragement, theater, music and painting flourished, while, under her patronage, the Academy of Sciences reached new heights. During her reign Saint Petersburg became one of the major cultural centers of Europe. In 1768 she founded the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books into Russian, superseded in 1782 by the Russian Academy, which sponsored a comprehensive dictionary between 1788 and 1796. Most strikingly, she founded the Hermitage, a museum annex to the Winter Palace, to house burgeoning collections of European paintings and other masterpieces of art.
As she grew older, Catherine became greatly concerned because her heir, Paul, who had long displayed violent and unpredictable extremes of emotion, was becoming so unsettled and erratic that she doubted he would make a fit successor to the throne. She considered disclaiming him as heir and naming his oldest son, Aleksandr, as her successor. But before she was able to change her original arrangement, she died of a stroke on 6 November 1796.
During her reign the territory of Russia increased significantly: out of 50 provinces 11 were acquired while she was in power. The population of the country grew almost twofold. She ordered 144 new cities and towns built, founding more than four cities per year of her reign. Russia also saw a flood of European immigrants. She boosted twofold the strength of the Russian army and increased more than threefold the number of lead ships of the Russian fleet. Her army and the fleet triumphantly came out victorious 78 times strengthening Russia’s position in the world.
Although very ambitious, she never exaggerated her significance for Russia, saying that whatever she had done was a drop in the ocean. Her close friends described her as a very good-looking woman throughout her entire life and appreciated her amiability, noble simplicity and tact. She was said to prefer to praise loudly, but to scold quietly.
In an epitaph to be inscribed on her grave, which she wrote long before she died, Catherine perhaps best surmised herself: “Catherine II rests here. She came to Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of 14 she took a three-sided decision: to enchant her husband, Empress Elizabeth and the people of Russia. And she used every single chance to succeed in this. Eighteen years of loneliness and boredom made her read many books. As she mounted to the Russian throne she did her best to give her people happiness, freedom and wellbeing. She forgave people easily and hated nobody. She was charitable, good-tempered and loved life. She was a true republican in her politics and was kind-hearted. She had friends. She worked easily. She loved social life and the arts.
Written by Yulia Bokova, RT Correspondent
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National Geographic | Catherine The Great - History channel - HD Documentary
National Geographic | Catherine The Great - History channel - HD Documentary
National Geographic | Catherine The Great - History channel - HD Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nz2vxZsP5fc
Images:
1. Map of the growth of the Russia Empire from 1558-1775
2. The partitions of Poland, carried out by Russia, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy in 1772, 1793 and 1795
3. The destruction of the Turkish fleet by Russia in the Battle of Chesma, 1771
4. Profile portrait of Catherine II by Fedor Rokotov (1763, Tretyakov gallery).
Biographies
1. saint-petersburg.com/royal-family/catherine-the-great
2. earnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments
1.Background from {[http://www.saint-petersburg.com/royal-family/catherine-the-great/]}
Catherine the Great
Born: Stettin, Pomerania, 21 April (2 May) 1729
Died: St. Petersburg, 6 (17) November 1796
Reigned: 1762-1796
Renowned as Catherine the Great, Empress of all the Russias, this remarkable woman was neither Russian nor originally named Catherine. Born Sophie Friederike Auguste from Anhalt-Zerbst, she was indeed a princess, but one that came from an obscure and impoverished German duchy. Fortunately, her mother enjoyed enviable royal connections, the effective exploitation of which resulted in a winter journey to St. Petersburg at the invitation of the childless Empress Elizabeth, who was actively seeking an appropriate bride for her designated heir, Peter. The year was 1744 and Sophie was fourteen years old. On 21 August 1745, when Sophie was sixteen and Peter seventeen, the two were married.
Like Sophie, Peter was German-born, but this was almost all that the new couple had in common. Peter, who was at the very least eccentric, loathed the country into which he had been imported as child heir, and remained a staunch supporter of all things Prussian, especially the Prussian military, which did nothing to ingratiate him to his new subjects. Sophie, on the other hand, came to Russia committed to doing whatever had to be done and to believing whatever was required to be believed in order to qualify for the crown. She learned the Russian language, converted to Orthodoxy, whereby she received the name Catherine, and with charm and determination carefully cultivated long-term relationships with the powerful and the well-connected. Thus, after the death of Elizabeth in 1762, a swift and bloodless palace coup was all it took to remove the hapless Peter from the throne upon which he had sat a mere six months and to replace him with the charismatic Catherine. And so, this German princess, with no Russian blood in her veins and no legal right to rule, became the sole occupant of the Empire's throne from which she governed for the next thirty-four years - longer than any of the country's other women sovereigns.
At the time of Catherine's accession, Russia was still regarded as a distant provincial wilderness by many Europeans. Catherine, who understood the power of image and symbol, sought to change this negative view by creating a powerful, modern, wealthy country ruled over by a sophisticated, enlightened autocrat (herself). She therefore purposefully became a patron of literature, science, the arts, and education - not only because she believed these fields to be important in and of themselves, but because she understood that success here would contribute to Russia's reputation as a center of civilization. She founded elementary schools, academies, libraries and other institutions of learning across the empire. Russian scholars and artists were sent abroad to learn from Western examples, and foreign scientists, architects, and artists were attracted to Petersburg in order to enrich the city's appearance and cultural life. The Empress herself laid the foundation stone for the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in 1765: since its completion, this magnificent early neoclassical edifice crowned by a statue of Minerva has been the alma mater of a plethora of Russian painters, sculptors and architects.
Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov
by Ivan Fedorov
Catherine maintained voluminous correspondence with the French Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire and Diderot. When the former, who called her the "Star of the North", died, she wept, and then bought his book collection. And when the latter fell upon hard times, the Empress - who he said possessed the charm of Cleopatra and the soul of Caesar - purchased his personal library, generously leaving it in his possession until his death and paying him a salary as a librarian. Such renowned acquaintances increased Catherine's prestige and such important acquisitions expanded the Imperial library from a few hundred volumes to 38,000. Meanwhile Catherine further stunned Europe by spending vast sums of money purchasing masterpieces of art. Her outstanding collection, containing works by Raphael, Rubens, Rembrandt, and many others, was the largest in Europe and formed the basis for one of the world's most magnificent museums: the Hermitage. Catherine likewise maintained a court worthy of such magnificence - more than one of every ten rubles in the state budget was spent on court expenses. Not that the Empress did not enjoy an extravagant ball or an impressive diplomatic reception, but she also understood the symbolic significance that such grandeur conveyed to awed Western beholders.
Catherine's foreign policy aimed at establishing the country's greatness and security. Two successful wars waged against the Ottoman Empire brought the Crimea under Russian control and with it the long-desired access to the Black Sea. She also participated in the tripartite division of Poland whereby Russia acquired Poland's eastern territory, bringing it into direct physical contact with the Western world. All told, Catherine's conquests added 200,000 square miles to Russian lands, her Empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and it was now indisputably recognized as a major power.
Much has been made of Catherine's romantic liaisons, and the facts here are far exceeded by legend, often unleashed posthumously by detractors (notoriously the French) with the purpose of denigrating her legacy. In actuality, Catherine had approximately twelve consecutive "favorites", the most famous of whom were Grigory Orlov, an instrumental member in the coup that had brought her to power, and Grigory Potemkin, a statesman, diplomat, and military leader who may have married her secretly. Catherine was known for the ample generosity she showed to her favorites and she was also deft at parting with them pleasantly, so that no one felt slighted.
Catherine might well have achieved more had the infrastructure in Russia been better equipped for major societal transformations. In reality, she was attempting to transplant progressive Western ideas from the Age of Enlightenment into the vast expanses of Russia at a time when serfs comprised the majority of the population. In addition, the Russian nobility was generally conservative and wary of reforms, especially when it came to issues like freeing the serfs. Despite such impediments, Catherine nonetheless left the country stronger, wealthier and more beautiful than she had received it. She continued the westernization begun under Peter the Great, significantly expanded the empire's territory, and imported a wealth of literature and art. The French ambassador to Russia in the 1780s wrote: "The court of Catherine was the meeting place of all European monarchs and celebrities of her age. Before her reign, Petersburg, built in the realm of cold and ice, went almost unnoticed and seemed to be somewhere in Asia. During her reign Russia became a European power. St. Petersburg occupied an important place among the capitals of the educated world and the Russian throne was raised as high as the most powerful and significant thrones."
Catherine died of a stroke in November 1796 at the age of sixty-seven, the oldest of any Romanov monarch. She is buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress."
2. Background from {[https://learnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments]}
10 MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA
By Anirudh; May 24, 2017
Catherine II (1729 – 1796), known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of the Russian Empire for a period of 34 years from 1762 till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader in the history of Russia. She expanded her empire by conquest and diplomacy making it one of the leading powers in Europe. By the end of her reign, around 200,000 square miles had been added to the territory of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was an able governor and she introduced a number of educational and administrative reforms which had a lasting impact on her nation. She founded the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the renowned Hermitage Museum began as her personal collection. Catherine II also played a key role in encouraging the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences. She is considered one of the greatest monarchs of Russia and such was her impact that the period of her rule is known as the Catherinian Era. Here are the 10 major accomplishments of Catherine the Great.
#1 CATHERINE WAS THE LONGEST REIGNING FEMALE LEADER OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
On 21st August 1745, Catherine married Peter, the nephew and heir of Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the death of the Elizabeth in January 1762, Peter succeeded her as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. She overthrew her husband in a coup on July 8 of the same year and the following day, she declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia. Her reign lasted for a period of 34 years, till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader of Russia. She is also perhaps the most renowned empress of the Russian Empire and, due to her achievements, she is referred to as Catherine the Great. The period of her rule is called the Catherinian Era and is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire. Catherine the Great is regarded as one of the greatest Russian rulers.
#2 SHE SUCCESSFULLY LED RUSSIA AGAINST THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In order to strengthen its power, it was necessary for Russia to have access to a major port. The Black Sea was however controlled by the Ottoman Empire, the largest and most influential Muslim empire in history. This situation led to the Russo-Turkish wars, a series of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire from late 17th to early 19th century. Under Catherine the Great, Russia handed the Turks some of the heaviest defeats in their history during the 1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War. It was concluded with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which gave Russia the right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea; granted it the territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn; made Crimea a protectorate of Russia; and granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
#3 SHE MADE RUSSIA THE DOMINANT POWER IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE
In 1783, Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright and in 1787, the Ottomans restarted hostilities in the second major Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). This conflict proved to be as disastrous for the Turks as the first. Russia won a series of victories and ultimately the Ottomans were compelled to sign the Treaty of Jassy, which recognized Russian Empire’s annexation of the Crimea and granted it the Yedisan region, the territory between Dniester and Bug rivers. The Russian Empire thus now had control over the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast. Through her successful campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine the Great made Russia the dominant power in south-eastern Europe.
#4 CATHERINE II RAPIDLY EXPANDED THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE THROUGH CONQUEST AND DIPLOMACY
Apart from victories against the Ottoman Empire, Russia under Catherine II defeated the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth leading to the partitioning of Poland and division of its territory between Russia, Prussia and Austria with Russia gaining the largest share. It also started to colonize Alaska, establishing Russian America; and waged a war against Persia in 1796 making a significant advance into their territory but Catherine died the same year and her successor Paul I ordered the Russian troops to retreat. By the end of Catherine II’s reign, the Russian Empire had grown larger and stronger than ever before. It had expanded rapidly by conquest and diplomacy with around 200,000 square miles (518,000 square kilometers) being added to its territory. Catherine II thus established Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
#5 SHE IMPLEMENTED A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS TO IMPROVE EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Catherine II passed a series of important educational reforms. By 1782, she set up a commission to study the educational systems of many different countries. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was put into effect. This established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools which were free of charge, co-educational and open to all of the free classes (not serfs). It also regulated, in detail, the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to this, teachers were provided with the “Guide to Teachers” which dealt with teaching methods, the subjects taught, etc. Although her educational program was not entirely successful in reforming education, still around 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions near the end of her reign.
#6 CATHERINE II ESTABLISHED THE FIRST INSTITUTES FOR THE FORMAL EDUCATION OF FEMALES IN RUSSIA
Catherine the Great was responsible for an increased emphasis on education in Russia. A number of foundling hospitals, or boarding schools for orphaned and abandoned children, were established. The number of state and private schools were increased. The University of Moscow reached unprecedented heights and became an internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship. She founded the great Vospitatelnoi Dom, or House of Education, at Moscow and also at St. Petersburg. In 1764, Catherine II passed a decree to establish the famous Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. Smolny Institute was for girls of the nobility. The following year, she also established the Novodevichy Institute in Moscow for the daughters of commoners.
#7 SHE INTRODUCED A NUMBER OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS FOR EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE
Catherine II took a number of steps to make the administration of her vast empire more effective. In 1775, she decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire, which divided Russia into provinces and districts according to population statistics with each province consisting of roughly equal population. She gave each province an expanded administrative, police and judicial apparatus. It was put under the supervision of a governor, who acted in the name of the ruler and had direct communication with her. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts had been created; the government officials had nearly doubled; and spending on local governance had increased by as much six times. Catherine’s structure of local administration remained in force until the middle of the 19th century and served as a foundation for the local elected councils established in 1864.
#8 HER REIGN WAS A PERIOD OF EXPANSION OF TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
In 1785, Catherine issued the Charter to the Nobility, which freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. They were also to elect a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch. The same year, she also issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781; and the Police Ordinance of 1782. Apart from her administrative reforms, Catherine provided an environment where commodities were plentiful, trade expanded and communications developed. Large government spending led to shortage of silver and huge masses of copper coins in the Russian domestic market; making large transactions difficult. Thus, in 1769, Catherine II founded the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg to issue notes of 100, 75, 50, and 25 rubles upon payment of similar sums in copper money. These notes, known as Assignation rubles, were the first government paper money in Russia.
#9 SHE HELPED IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FREE ECONOMIC SOCIETY
In 1765, the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry was established in St Petersburg by a group of wealthy landowners led by Count Grigory Orlov. It was Russia’s first learned society; one of the first economic societies in the world; and, as it was independent of the government, it proved influential for Russian liberalism. Catherine II was instrumental in the establishment of the Free Economic Society and the mastermind behind its early activity. She endowed it with funds for a library and a building on Palace Square. Through it, she aimed to modernize the country’s agricultural system by incorporating latest techniques and achievements of Western agriculture. The leading economists of the time, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, were foreign members of the Free Economic Society.
#10 CATHERINE THE GREAT PLAYED A KEY ROLE IN THE RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT
Catherine II enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, a movement which dominated intellectual and philosophical thought in Europe during the 18th century. She corresponded with several leading philosophers of her time including Voltaire; and she herself wrote comedies, fiction and memoirs. She sponsored many cultural projects; and played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education in Russia. The Hermitage Museum, one of the largest and oldest museums in the world, began as a personal collection of Catherine II. It currently holds over three million items including the largest collection of paintings in the world. She also played a part in the formation of the renowned Bolshoi Theatre and the neighboring Maly Theatre. Catherine the Great presided over the period known as the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences; and had a significant and profound impact on Russian culture.
Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and the arts
THE INSTRUCTION OF CATHERINE THE GREAT
Nakaz, or Instruction, of Catherine the Great was a document prepared by her as a guide for the All-Russian Legislative Commission of 1767 to consider internal reforms and to devise a new code of laws. The Instruction maintained that all men should be considered equal before the law; and that law should forbid only acts directly harmful to an individual or the community, leaving the people free to do anything not forbidden. It also disapproved of death penalty and torture. Catherine worked on the Instruction for two years and it consisted of 22 chapters and 655 articles. However, the Commission failed to prepare a new legal code and Catherine made no further efforts to implement her principles. Still the Instruction did raise some of the issues later adopted by the United States Constitution and it exerted considerable influence on the course of the Russian Enlightenment.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nz2vxZsP5fc
Images:
1. Map of the growth of the Russia Empire from 1558-1775
2. The partitions of Poland, carried out by Russia, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy in 1772, 1793 and 1795
3. The destruction of the Turkish fleet by Russia in the Battle of Chesma, 1771
4. Profile portrait of Catherine II by Fedor Rokotov (1763, Tretyakov gallery).
Biographies
1. saint-petersburg.com/royal-family/catherine-the-great
2. earnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments
1.Background from {[http://www.saint-petersburg.com/royal-family/catherine-the-great/]}
Catherine the Great
Born: Stettin, Pomerania, 21 April (2 May) 1729
Died: St. Petersburg, 6 (17) November 1796
Reigned: 1762-1796
Renowned as Catherine the Great, Empress of all the Russias, this remarkable woman was neither Russian nor originally named Catherine. Born Sophie Friederike Auguste from Anhalt-Zerbst, she was indeed a princess, but one that came from an obscure and impoverished German duchy. Fortunately, her mother enjoyed enviable royal connections, the effective exploitation of which resulted in a winter journey to St. Petersburg at the invitation of the childless Empress Elizabeth, who was actively seeking an appropriate bride for her designated heir, Peter. The year was 1744 and Sophie was fourteen years old. On 21 August 1745, when Sophie was sixteen and Peter seventeen, the two were married.
Like Sophie, Peter was German-born, but this was almost all that the new couple had in common. Peter, who was at the very least eccentric, loathed the country into which he had been imported as child heir, and remained a staunch supporter of all things Prussian, especially the Prussian military, which did nothing to ingratiate him to his new subjects. Sophie, on the other hand, came to Russia committed to doing whatever had to be done and to believing whatever was required to be believed in order to qualify for the crown. She learned the Russian language, converted to Orthodoxy, whereby she received the name Catherine, and with charm and determination carefully cultivated long-term relationships with the powerful and the well-connected. Thus, after the death of Elizabeth in 1762, a swift and bloodless palace coup was all it took to remove the hapless Peter from the throne upon which he had sat a mere six months and to replace him with the charismatic Catherine. And so, this German princess, with no Russian blood in her veins and no legal right to rule, became the sole occupant of the Empire's throne from which she governed for the next thirty-four years - longer than any of the country's other women sovereigns.
At the time of Catherine's accession, Russia was still regarded as a distant provincial wilderness by many Europeans. Catherine, who understood the power of image and symbol, sought to change this negative view by creating a powerful, modern, wealthy country ruled over by a sophisticated, enlightened autocrat (herself). She therefore purposefully became a patron of literature, science, the arts, and education - not only because she believed these fields to be important in and of themselves, but because she understood that success here would contribute to Russia's reputation as a center of civilization. She founded elementary schools, academies, libraries and other institutions of learning across the empire. Russian scholars and artists were sent abroad to learn from Western examples, and foreign scientists, architects, and artists were attracted to Petersburg in order to enrich the city's appearance and cultural life. The Empress herself laid the foundation stone for the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in 1765: since its completion, this magnificent early neoclassical edifice crowned by a statue of Minerva has been the alma mater of a plethora of Russian painters, sculptors and architects.
Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov
by Ivan Fedorov
Catherine maintained voluminous correspondence with the French Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire and Diderot. When the former, who called her the "Star of the North", died, she wept, and then bought his book collection. And when the latter fell upon hard times, the Empress - who he said possessed the charm of Cleopatra and the soul of Caesar - purchased his personal library, generously leaving it in his possession until his death and paying him a salary as a librarian. Such renowned acquaintances increased Catherine's prestige and such important acquisitions expanded the Imperial library from a few hundred volumes to 38,000. Meanwhile Catherine further stunned Europe by spending vast sums of money purchasing masterpieces of art. Her outstanding collection, containing works by Raphael, Rubens, Rembrandt, and many others, was the largest in Europe and formed the basis for one of the world's most magnificent museums: the Hermitage. Catherine likewise maintained a court worthy of such magnificence - more than one of every ten rubles in the state budget was spent on court expenses. Not that the Empress did not enjoy an extravagant ball or an impressive diplomatic reception, but she also understood the symbolic significance that such grandeur conveyed to awed Western beholders.
Catherine's foreign policy aimed at establishing the country's greatness and security. Two successful wars waged against the Ottoman Empire brought the Crimea under Russian control and with it the long-desired access to the Black Sea. She also participated in the tripartite division of Poland whereby Russia acquired Poland's eastern territory, bringing it into direct physical contact with the Western world. All told, Catherine's conquests added 200,000 square miles to Russian lands, her Empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and it was now indisputably recognized as a major power.
Much has been made of Catherine's romantic liaisons, and the facts here are far exceeded by legend, often unleashed posthumously by detractors (notoriously the French) with the purpose of denigrating her legacy. In actuality, Catherine had approximately twelve consecutive "favorites", the most famous of whom were Grigory Orlov, an instrumental member in the coup that had brought her to power, and Grigory Potemkin, a statesman, diplomat, and military leader who may have married her secretly. Catherine was known for the ample generosity she showed to her favorites and she was also deft at parting with them pleasantly, so that no one felt slighted.
Catherine might well have achieved more had the infrastructure in Russia been better equipped for major societal transformations. In reality, she was attempting to transplant progressive Western ideas from the Age of Enlightenment into the vast expanses of Russia at a time when serfs comprised the majority of the population. In addition, the Russian nobility was generally conservative and wary of reforms, especially when it came to issues like freeing the serfs. Despite such impediments, Catherine nonetheless left the country stronger, wealthier and more beautiful than she had received it. She continued the westernization begun under Peter the Great, significantly expanded the empire's territory, and imported a wealth of literature and art. The French ambassador to Russia in the 1780s wrote: "The court of Catherine was the meeting place of all European monarchs and celebrities of her age. Before her reign, Petersburg, built in the realm of cold and ice, went almost unnoticed and seemed to be somewhere in Asia. During her reign Russia became a European power. St. Petersburg occupied an important place among the capitals of the educated world and the Russian throne was raised as high as the most powerful and significant thrones."
Catherine died of a stroke in November 1796 at the age of sixty-seven, the oldest of any Romanov monarch. She is buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress."
2. Background from {[https://learnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments]}
10 MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA
By Anirudh; May 24, 2017
Catherine II (1729 – 1796), known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of the Russian Empire for a period of 34 years from 1762 till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader in the history of Russia. She expanded her empire by conquest and diplomacy making it one of the leading powers in Europe. By the end of her reign, around 200,000 square miles had been added to the territory of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was an able governor and she introduced a number of educational and administrative reforms which had a lasting impact on her nation. She founded the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the renowned Hermitage Museum began as her personal collection. Catherine II also played a key role in encouraging the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences. She is considered one of the greatest monarchs of Russia and such was her impact that the period of her rule is known as the Catherinian Era. Here are the 10 major accomplishments of Catherine the Great.
#1 CATHERINE WAS THE LONGEST REIGNING FEMALE LEADER OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
On 21st August 1745, Catherine married Peter, the nephew and heir of Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the death of the Elizabeth in January 1762, Peter succeeded her as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. She overthrew her husband in a coup on July 8 of the same year and the following day, she declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia. Her reign lasted for a period of 34 years, till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader of Russia. She is also perhaps the most renowned empress of the Russian Empire and, due to her achievements, she is referred to as Catherine the Great. The period of her rule is called the Catherinian Era and is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire. Catherine the Great is regarded as one of the greatest Russian rulers.
#2 SHE SUCCESSFULLY LED RUSSIA AGAINST THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In order to strengthen its power, it was necessary for Russia to have access to a major port. The Black Sea was however controlled by the Ottoman Empire, the largest and most influential Muslim empire in history. This situation led to the Russo-Turkish wars, a series of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire from late 17th to early 19th century. Under Catherine the Great, Russia handed the Turks some of the heaviest defeats in their history during the 1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War. It was concluded with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which gave Russia the right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea; granted it the territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn; made Crimea a protectorate of Russia; and granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
#3 SHE MADE RUSSIA THE DOMINANT POWER IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE
In 1783, Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright and in 1787, the Ottomans restarted hostilities in the second major Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). This conflict proved to be as disastrous for the Turks as the first. Russia won a series of victories and ultimately the Ottomans were compelled to sign the Treaty of Jassy, which recognized Russian Empire’s annexation of the Crimea and granted it the Yedisan region, the territory between Dniester and Bug rivers. The Russian Empire thus now had control over the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast. Through her successful campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine the Great made Russia the dominant power in south-eastern Europe.
#4 CATHERINE II RAPIDLY EXPANDED THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE THROUGH CONQUEST AND DIPLOMACY
Apart from victories against the Ottoman Empire, Russia under Catherine II defeated the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth leading to the partitioning of Poland and division of its territory between Russia, Prussia and Austria with Russia gaining the largest share. It also started to colonize Alaska, establishing Russian America; and waged a war against Persia in 1796 making a significant advance into their territory but Catherine died the same year and her successor Paul I ordered the Russian troops to retreat. By the end of Catherine II’s reign, the Russian Empire had grown larger and stronger than ever before. It had expanded rapidly by conquest and diplomacy with around 200,000 square miles (518,000 square kilometers) being added to its territory. Catherine II thus established Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
#5 SHE IMPLEMENTED A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS TO IMPROVE EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Catherine II passed a series of important educational reforms. By 1782, she set up a commission to study the educational systems of many different countries. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was put into effect. This established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools which were free of charge, co-educational and open to all of the free classes (not serfs). It also regulated, in detail, the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to this, teachers were provided with the “Guide to Teachers” which dealt with teaching methods, the subjects taught, etc. Although her educational program was not entirely successful in reforming education, still around 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions near the end of her reign.
#6 CATHERINE II ESTABLISHED THE FIRST INSTITUTES FOR THE FORMAL EDUCATION OF FEMALES IN RUSSIA
Catherine the Great was responsible for an increased emphasis on education in Russia. A number of foundling hospitals, or boarding schools for orphaned and abandoned children, were established. The number of state and private schools were increased. The University of Moscow reached unprecedented heights and became an internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship. She founded the great Vospitatelnoi Dom, or House of Education, at Moscow and also at St. Petersburg. In 1764, Catherine II passed a decree to establish the famous Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. Smolny Institute was for girls of the nobility. The following year, she also established the Novodevichy Institute in Moscow for the daughters of commoners.
#7 SHE INTRODUCED A NUMBER OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS FOR EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE
Catherine II took a number of steps to make the administration of her vast empire more effective. In 1775, she decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire, which divided Russia into provinces and districts according to population statistics with each province consisting of roughly equal population. She gave each province an expanded administrative, police and judicial apparatus. It was put under the supervision of a governor, who acted in the name of the ruler and had direct communication with her. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts had been created; the government officials had nearly doubled; and spending on local governance had increased by as much six times. Catherine’s structure of local administration remained in force until the middle of the 19th century and served as a foundation for the local elected councils established in 1864.
#8 HER REIGN WAS A PERIOD OF EXPANSION OF TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
In 1785, Catherine issued the Charter to the Nobility, which freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. They were also to elect a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch. The same year, she also issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781; and the Police Ordinance of 1782. Apart from her administrative reforms, Catherine provided an environment where commodities were plentiful, trade expanded and communications developed. Large government spending led to shortage of silver and huge masses of copper coins in the Russian domestic market; making large transactions difficult. Thus, in 1769, Catherine II founded the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg to issue notes of 100, 75, 50, and 25 rubles upon payment of similar sums in copper money. These notes, known as Assignation rubles, were the first government paper money in Russia.
#9 SHE HELPED IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FREE ECONOMIC SOCIETY
In 1765, the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry was established in St Petersburg by a group of wealthy landowners led by Count Grigory Orlov. It was Russia’s first learned society; one of the first economic societies in the world; and, as it was independent of the government, it proved influential for Russian liberalism. Catherine II was instrumental in the establishment of the Free Economic Society and the mastermind behind its early activity. She endowed it with funds for a library and a building on Palace Square. Through it, she aimed to modernize the country’s agricultural system by incorporating latest techniques and achievements of Western agriculture. The leading economists of the time, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, were foreign members of the Free Economic Society.
#10 CATHERINE THE GREAT PLAYED A KEY ROLE IN THE RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT
Catherine II enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, a movement which dominated intellectual and philosophical thought in Europe during the 18th century. She corresponded with several leading philosophers of her time including Voltaire; and she herself wrote comedies, fiction and memoirs. She sponsored many cultural projects; and played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education in Russia. The Hermitage Museum, one of the largest and oldest museums in the world, began as a personal collection of Catherine II. It currently holds over three million items including the largest collection of paintings in the world. She also played a part in the formation of the renowned Bolshoi Theatre and the neighboring Maly Theatre. Catherine the Great presided over the period known as the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences; and had a significant and profound impact on Russian culture.
Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and the arts
THE INSTRUCTION OF CATHERINE THE GREAT
Nakaz, or Instruction, of Catherine the Great was a document prepared by her as a guide for the All-Russian Legislative Commission of 1767 to consider internal reforms and to devise a new code of laws. The Instruction maintained that all men should be considered equal before the law; and that law should forbid only acts directly harmful to an individual or the community, leaving the people free to do anything not forbidden. It also disapproved of death penalty and torture. Catherine worked on the Instruction for two years and it consisted of 22 chapters and 655 articles. However, the Commission failed to prepare a new legal code and Catherine made no further efforts to implement her principles. Still the Instruction did raise some of the issues later adopted by the United States Constitution and it exerted considerable influence on the course of the Russian Enlightenment.
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Catherine the Great - The Enlightened Empress Documentary
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Catherine the Great - The Enlightened Empress Documentary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNWrxlOlmUU
Images:
1. Catherine the Great, by Alexander Roslin, 1776-7, Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg.
2. Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe
3. 2007 photo of the Moscow Orphanage or Foundling Home – A project conceived by Catherine the Great
4. Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov by Ivan Fedorov
Biographies
1. thoughtco.com/catherine-the-great-p2-3528624
2. bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtm
1. Background from {[https://www.thoughtco.com/catherine-the-great-p2-3528624]}
Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
Catherine the Great (May 2, 1729–Nov. 17, 1796) was empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, the longest reign of any female Russian leader. She expanded Russia's borders to the Black Sea and into central Europe during her reign. She also promoted westernization and modernization for her country, though it was within the context of maintaining her autocratic control over Russia and increasing the power of the landed gentry over the serfs.
Fast Facts: Catherine the Great
• Known For: Empress of Russia
• Also Known As: Catherine II
• Born: May 2, 1729 in Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland)
• Parents: Prince Christian August von Anhalt-Zerbst, Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
• Died: Nov. 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg, Russia
• Spouse: Grand Duke Peter (Peter III) of Russia
• Children: Paul, Anna, Alexei
• Notable Quote: "I beg you take courage; the brave soul can mend even disaster."
Early Life
Catherine the Great was born Sophia Frederike Auguste in Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland), on May 2, 1729 (April 21 in the Old Style calendar). She was known as Frederike or Fredericka. Her father was Prussian Prince Christian August von Anhalt-Zerbst and her mother was Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp.
As was common for royal and noblewomen, she was educated at home by tutors. She learned French and German and also studied history, music, and the religion of her homeland, Lutheranism.
Marriage
She met her future husband, the Grand Duke Peter (later known as Peter III), on a trip to Russia at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth, Peter's aunt, who ruled Russia after taking power in a coup. Elizabeth, unmarried and childless, had named Peter as her heir to the Russian throne.
Peter, though the Romanov heir, was a German prince. His mother was Anna, daughter of Peter the Great of Russia, and his father was the Duke of Hostein-Gottorp. Peter the Great had 14 children by his two wives, only three of whom survived to adulthood. His son Alexei died in prison, convicted of plotting to overthrow his father. His elder daughter Anna was the mother of the Grand Duke Peter, whom Catherine married. Anna had died in 1728 following the birth of her only son, a few years after her father died and while her mother Catherine I of Russia ruled.
Catherine the Great (or Catherine II) converted to Orthodoxy, changed her name, and married the Grand Duke Peter in 1745. Though Catherine had the support of Peter's mother, the Empress Elizabeth, she disliked her husband—Catherine later wrote she had been more interested in the crown than the person—and first Peter and then Catherine were unfaithful.
Her first son Paul later emperor (or czar) of Russia as Paul I, was born nine years into the marriage, and some question whether his father was Catherine's husband. Her second child, daughter Anna, was likely fathered by Stanislaw Poniatowski. Her youngest child Alexei was most likely the son of Grigory Orlov. All three were officially recorded, however, as Peter's children.
Empress Catherine
When Czarina Elizabeth died at the end of 1761, Peter became ruler as Peter III and Catherine became the empress consort. She considered fleeing, as many thought that Peter would divorce her, but Peter's actions as emperor soon led to a coup against him. Military, church, and government leaders removed Peter from the throne, planning to install Paul, then 7 years old, as his replacement. Catherine, however, with the help of her lover Orlov won over the military in St. Petersburg and gained the throne for herself in 1762, later naming Paul as her heir. Soon after, she may have been behind Peter's death.
Her early years as empress were devoted to gaining the support of the military and nobility to strengthen her claim as empress. She had her ministers carry out domestic and foreign policies designed to establish stability and peace; instituted reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, a philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries; and updated Russia's legal system to provide equality of people under the law.
Foreign and Domestic Strife
Stanislas, the king of Poland, was Catherine's former lover, and in 1768 Catherine sent troops to Poland to help him suppress a revolt. The rebels brought in Turkey as an ally, and the Turks declared war on Russia. When Russia beat the Turkish troops, the Austrians threatened Russia with war. Russia and Austria partitioned Poland in 1772. By 1774, Russia and Turkey had signed a peace treaty, with Russia winning the right to use the Black Sea for shipping.
While Russia was still technically at war with the Turks, Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev led a revolt at home. He claimed that Peter III was still alive and that oppression of serfs and others would be ended by deposing Catherine and reinstituting Peter III's rule. It took several battles to defeat the rebellion, and after this uprising that included many of the lower classes, Catherine backed off many of her reforms to benefit that stratum of society.
Government Reorganization
Catherine then began reorganizing government in the provinces, strengthening the role of the nobility and making operations more efficient. She also tried to reform municipal government and expand education.
She wanted Russia to be seen as a model of civilization, so she paid considerable attention to the arts and sciences to establish the capital of St. Petersburg as a major center for culture.
Russo-Turkish War
Catherine sought the support of Austria in moving against Turkey and planned to seize Turkey's European lands. In 1787, Turkey's ruler declared war on Russia. The Russo-Turkish War took four years, but Russia gained a large amount of land from Turkey and annexed Crimea. By that time, Austria and other European powers had withdrawn from their alliances with Russia, so Catherine wasn't able to realize her plan to take over lands as far as Constantinople.
Polish nationalists again rebelled against Russian influence, and in 1793 Russia and Prussia annexed more Polish territory. In 1794 Russia, Prussia, and Austria annexed the rest of Poland.
Succession and Death
Catherine became concerned that her son Paul was not emotionally fit to rule. She planned to remove him from the succession and name Paul's son Alexander as heir. But before she could make the change, she died of a stroke on Nov. 17, 1796. Her son Paul ascended to the throne.
Legacy
Russians continue to admire Catherine for increasing the boundaries of the country and streamlining its governance. At the end of her reign, Russia had broadened to the west and south over more than 200,000 square miles; provinces had been reorganized and towns renovated, expanded, or built from scratch; trade had expanded; military battles had been won; and the royal court had transformed into an attraction for the greatest minds of Europe.
Catherine was a patron of literature who promoted Russian culture and one of the few women, including British Queens Elizabeth I and Victoria, to have been influential enough to have epochs named after them.
Though outside observers acknowledged her energy and administrative ability, they saw her more as a harsh, unscrupulous ruler, egotistical, pretentious, and domineering, a woman of action who could be ruthless when it served her or the state. She was also widely known for being lusty, having taken young lovers up to her death at age 67.
Sources
• "Catherine the Great: Empress of Russia." Encyclopedia Brittanica.
• "Catherine the Great: Biography, Accomplishments & Death." Live Science.
• "8 Things You Didn't Know About Catherine the Great." History.com.
2. Background from {[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]}
Catherine the Great (1729 – 1796)
Catherine II was Empress of Russia for more than 30 years and one of the country’s most influential rulers.
Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst was born on 2 May 1729 in Stettin, then part of Prussia (now Szczecin in Poland), the daughter of a minor German prince. In 1745, after being received into the Russian Orthodox Church, and changing her name to Catherine, she married Grand Duke Peter, grandson of Peter the Great and heir to the Russian throne.
The marriage was unhappy, but the couple did produce one son, Paul. In 1762 Catherine's husband became Tsar Peter III but he was soon overthrown with Catherine being declared empress. Peter was then killed shortly afterwards and it is not known whether Catherine had a part in his death. She subsequently had a series of lovers whom she promoted to high office, the most famous and successful of whom was Grigori Potemkin.
Catherine's major influences on her adopted country were in expanding Russia's borders and continuing the process of Westernisation begun by Peter the Great. During her reign she extended the Russian empire southwards and westwards, adding territories which included the Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. Agreements with Prussia and Austria led to three partitions of Poland, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, extending Russia's borders well into central Europe.
Catherine began as a political and social reformer but gradually grew more conservative as she got older. In 1767 she convened the Legislative Commission to codify Russia's laws and in the process modernised Russian life. She presented the commission with her Nakaz, (or 'Instruction'), a strikingly liberal document that presented the empress’s vision of the ideal government. The commission produced no desired results and the outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire in 1768 provided a good opportunity to disband it.
The Pugachev Rebellion of 1774-1775 gained huge support in Russia's western territories until it was extinguished by the Russian army. Catherine realised her heavy reliance on the nobility to control the country and instigated a series of reforms giving them greater control over their land and serfs. The 1785 ‘Charter to the Nobility’ established them as a separate estate in Russian society and assured their privileges. Catherine therefore ignored any concern she may previously have had for the plight of the serfs, whose status and rights declined further.
Catherine's main interests were in education and culture. She read widely and corresponded with many of the prominent thinkers of the era, including Voltaire and Diderot. She was a patron of the arts, literature and education and acquired an art collection which now forms the basis of the Hermitage Museum.
Catherine died in St Petersburg on 17 November 1796 and was succeeded by her son Paul."
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNWrxlOlmUU
Images:
1. Catherine the Great, by Alexander Roslin, 1776-7, Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg.
2. Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe
3. 2007 photo of the Moscow Orphanage or Foundling Home – A project conceived by Catherine the Great
4. Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov by Ivan Fedorov
Biographies
1. thoughtco.com/catherine-the-great-p2-3528624
2. bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtm
1. Background from {[https://www.thoughtco.com/catherine-the-great-p2-3528624]}
Biography of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia
Catherine the Great (May 2, 1729–Nov. 17, 1796) was empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, the longest reign of any female Russian leader. She expanded Russia's borders to the Black Sea and into central Europe during her reign. She also promoted westernization and modernization for her country, though it was within the context of maintaining her autocratic control over Russia and increasing the power of the landed gentry over the serfs.
Fast Facts: Catherine the Great
• Known For: Empress of Russia
• Also Known As: Catherine II
• Born: May 2, 1729 in Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland)
• Parents: Prince Christian August von Anhalt-Zerbst, Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
• Died: Nov. 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg, Russia
• Spouse: Grand Duke Peter (Peter III) of Russia
• Children: Paul, Anna, Alexei
• Notable Quote: "I beg you take courage; the brave soul can mend even disaster."
Early Life
Catherine the Great was born Sophia Frederike Auguste in Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland), on May 2, 1729 (April 21 in the Old Style calendar). She was known as Frederike or Fredericka. Her father was Prussian Prince Christian August von Anhalt-Zerbst and her mother was Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp.
As was common for royal and noblewomen, she was educated at home by tutors. She learned French and German and also studied history, music, and the religion of her homeland, Lutheranism.
Marriage
She met her future husband, the Grand Duke Peter (later known as Peter III), on a trip to Russia at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth, Peter's aunt, who ruled Russia after taking power in a coup. Elizabeth, unmarried and childless, had named Peter as her heir to the Russian throne.
Peter, though the Romanov heir, was a German prince. His mother was Anna, daughter of Peter the Great of Russia, and his father was the Duke of Hostein-Gottorp. Peter the Great had 14 children by his two wives, only three of whom survived to adulthood. His son Alexei died in prison, convicted of plotting to overthrow his father. His elder daughter Anna was the mother of the Grand Duke Peter, whom Catherine married. Anna had died in 1728 following the birth of her only son, a few years after her father died and while her mother Catherine I of Russia ruled.
Catherine the Great (or Catherine II) converted to Orthodoxy, changed her name, and married the Grand Duke Peter in 1745. Though Catherine had the support of Peter's mother, the Empress Elizabeth, she disliked her husband—Catherine later wrote she had been more interested in the crown than the person—and first Peter and then Catherine were unfaithful.
Her first son Paul later emperor (or czar) of Russia as Paul I, was born nine years into the marriage, and some question whether his father was Catherine's husband. Her second child, daughter Anna, was likely fathered by Stanislaw Poniatowski. Her youngest child Alexei was most likely the son of Grigory Orlov. All three were officially recorded, however, as Peter's children.
Empress Catherine
When Czarina Elizabeth died at the end of 1761, Peter became ruler as Peter III and Catherine became the empress consort. She considered fleeing, as many thought that Peter would divorce her, but Peter's actions as emperor soon led to a coup against him. Military, church, and government leaders removed Peter from the throne, planning to install Paul, then 7 years old, as his replacement. Catherine, however, with the help of her lover Orlov won over the military in St. Petersburg and gained the throne for herself in 1762, later naming Paul as her heir. Soon after, she may have been behind Peter's death.
Her early years as empress were devoted to gaining the support of the military and nobility to strengthen her claim as empress. She had her ministers carry out domestic and foreign policies designed to establish stability and peace; instituted reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, a philosophical, intellectual, and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries; and updated Russia's legal system to provide equality of people under the law.
Foreign and Domestic Strife
Stanislas, the king of Poland, was Catherine's former lover, and in 1768 Catherine sent troops to Poland to help him suppress a revolt. The rebels brought in Turkey as an ally, and the Turks declared war on Russia. When Russia beat the Turkish troops, the Austrians threatened Russia with war. Russia and Austria partitioned Poland in 1772. By 1774, Russia and Turkey had signed a peace treaty, with Russia winning the right to use the Black Sea for shipping.
While Russia was still technically at war with the Turks, Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev led a revolt at home. He claimed that Peter III was still alive and that oppression of serfs and others would be ended by deposing Catherine and reinstituting Peter III's rule. It took several battles to defeat the rebellion, and after this uprising that included many of the lower classes, Catherine backed off many of her reforms to benefit that stratum of society.
Government Reorganization
Catherine then began reorganizing government in the provinces, strengthening the role of the nobility and making operations more efficient. She also tried to reform municipal government and expand education.
She wanted Russia to be seen as a model of civilization, so she paid considerable attention to the arts and sciences to establish the capital of St. Petersburg as a major center for culture.
Russo-Turkish War
Catherine sought the support of Austria in moving against Turkey and planned to seize Turkey's European lands. In 1787, Turkey's ruler declared war on Russia. The Russo-Turkish War took four years, but Russia gained a large amount of land from Turkey and annexed Crimea. By that time, Austria and other European powers had withdrawn from their alliances with Russia, so Catherine wasn't able to realize her plan to take over lands as far as Constantinople.
Polish nationalists again rebelled against Russian influence, and in 1793 Russia and Prussia annexed more Polish territory. In 1794 Russia, Prussia, and Austria annexed the rest of Poland.
Succession and Death
Catherine became concerned that her son Paul was not emotionally fit to rule. She planned to remove him from the succession and name Paul's son Alexander as heir. But before she could make the change, she died of a stroke on Nov. 17, 1796. Her son Paul ascended to the throne.
Legacy
Russians continue to admire Catherine for increasing the boundaries of the country and streamlining its governance. At the end of her reign, Russia had broadened to the west and south over more than 200,000 square miles; provinces had been reorganized and towns renovated, expanded, or built from scratch; trade had expanded; military battles had been won; and the royal court had transformed into an attraction for the greatest minds of Europe.
Catherine was a patron of literature who promoted Russian culture and one of the few women, including British Queens Elizabeth I and Victoria, to have been influential enough to have epochs named after them.
Though outside observers acknowledged her energy and administrative ability, they saw her more as a harsh, unscrupulous ruler, egotistical, pretentious, and domineering, a woman of action who could be ruthless when it served her or the state. She was also widely known for being lusty, having taken young lovers up to her death at age 67.
Sources
• "Catherine the Great: Empress of Russia." Encyclopedia Brittanica.
• "Catherine the Great: Biography, Accomplishments & Death." Live Science.
• "8 Things You Didn't Know About Catherine the Great." History.com.
2. Background from {[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]}
Catherine the Great (1729 – 1796)
Catherine II was Empress of Russia for more than 30 years and one of the country’s most influential rulers.
Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst was born on 2 May 1729 in Stettin, then part of Prussia (now Szczecin in Poland), the daughter of a minor German prince. In 1745, after being received into the Russian Orthodox Church, and changing her name to Catherine, she married Grand Duke Peter, grandson of Peter the Great and heir to the Russian throne.
The marriage was unhappy, but the couple did produce one son, Paul. In 1762 Catherine's husband became Tsar Peter III but he was soon overthrown with Catherine being declared empress. Peter was then killed shortly afterwards and it is not known whether Catherine had a part in his death. She subsequently had a series of lovers whom she promoted to high office, the most famous and successful of whom was Grigori Potemkin.
Catherine's major influences on her adopted country were in expanding Russia's borders and continuing the process of Westernisation begun by Peter the Great. During her reign she extended the Russian empire southwards and westwards, adding territories which included the Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. Agreements with Prussia and Austria led to three partitions of Poland, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, extending Russia's borders well into central Europe.
Catherine began as a political and social reformer but gradually grew more conservative as she got older. In 1767 she convened the Legislative Commission to codify Russia's laws and in the process modernised Russian life. She presented the commission with her Nakaz, (or 'Instruction'), a strikingly liberal document that presented the empress’s vision of the ideal government. The commission produced no desired results and the outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire in 1768 provided a good opportunity to disband it.
The Pugachev Rebellion of 1774-1775 gained huge support in Russia's western territories until it was extinguished by the Russian army. Catherine realised her heavy reliance on the nobility to control the country and instigated a series of reforms giving them greater control over their land and serfs. The 1785 ‘Charter to the Nobility’ established them as a separate estate in Russian society and assured their privileges. Catherine therefore ignored any concern she may previously have had for the plight of the serfs, whose status and rights declined further.
Catherine's main interests were in education and culture. She read widely and corresponded with many of the prominent thinkers of the era, including Voltaire and Diderot. She was a patron of the arts, literature and education and acquired an art collection which now forms the basis of the Hermitage Museum.
Catherine died in St Petersburg on 17 November 1796 and was succeeded by her son Paul."
FYI LTC John Shaw 1SG Steven ImermanGySgt Gary CordeiroSgt Jim BelanusSGM Bill FrazerSGT Randell RoseA1C Riley SandersSSgt Clare MaySSG Robert WebsterCSM Chuck StaffordPFC Craig KarshnerSFC Bernard Walko[~1208183:PV2 Mark Zehner Lt Col Charlie BrownSP5 Dennis Loberger SSG Robert Mark Odom 1LT Peter DustonSPC Woody BullardCPT (Join to see) SFC Joe S. Davis Jr., MSM, DSL
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THE GREAT Trailer # 2 (2020) Elle Fanning, Nicholas Hoult Movie HD
THE GREAT Trailer 2 (2020) Elle Fanning, Nicholas Hoult Movie HD 2020 - Hulu
...and then there's the (sort of) historical account
https://youtu.be/rjO_xBGvrPI
https://youtu.be/rjO_xBGvrPI
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CPT Jack Durish
SGT (Join to see) - I really enjoyed it. It told the story better than the many historical accounts I've seen. It brought the historical characters to life rather than focusing on bland dates, places, and events.
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