Posted on Jun 28, 2020
Catherine the Great: Biography, Accomplishments & Death
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On June 28, 1762, Russian Tsarina Catherine II seized power declaring herself the sovereign ruler of Russia. From the article:
"Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, was an empress of Russia who ruled from 1762-1796, the longest reign of any female Russian leader. Known more for her affairs of the heart than for affairs of state, she nevertheless greatly expanded her country's empire. Her accomplishments are often overshadowed by the legends and rumors about her scandalous personal life.
Sophie von Anhalt-Zerbst was born in 1729, the daughter of a Prussian prince. In her teenage years, she was married, unhappily, to a Russian prince who would become Emperor Peter III. She took on the name Catherine, or Ekaterina Alekseyevna. Peter was regarded by some as inept, and after only six months on the throne, Catherine overthrew him with the aid of Grigory Orlov, a military officer with whom she was having an affair. Her husband was later arrested and killed, securing her position on the throne.
Some regard Catherine as a socially enlightened ruler; she exchanged correspondence with the French philosopher Voltaire. She was a patron of the arts; the Hermitage Museum opened during her reign, beginning as part of her personal collection. Under her influence, Russians adopted western European philosophies and culture.
Female artists
Catherine's rule brought about something of a golden period for female artists. While it was Peter I (reign 1682-1725) that brought about reforms that gave women greater freedom to pursue education it was during the mid-18th century, the time that Catherine the Great rose to power, that female artists also rose in Russia.
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"Brandishing their newly won literacy, Russian women writers and poets, followed closely by Russian women composers, set pen to paper, starting in the mid-1700s," wrote Anne Harley, a professor of music at Scripps College, in a paper published in 2015 in the "Journal of Singing."
These female artists tended to be from the aristocratic class but they followed the lead of Catherine II ("the great") and other women who held power in Russia in the 18th century. "These female aristocrats followed a new model of empowered and extremely cultured womanhood, modeled by four women who ruled the Russian empire for more than two-thirds of the 18th century: Catherine I, Anna, Elisabeth, and Catherine II," wrote Harley in her paper.
Among the most prolific Russian female artists was Princess Natalia Ivanovna Kurakina (lived 1768-1831) who wrote at least 45 songs. "Kurakina's songs were so popular that Breitkopf (Petersburg) published a collection of eight of her French romances in 1795," wrote Harley.
Power and love
Catherine was also a successful military ruler; her troops conquered a great deal of new territory. She also allowed a system of serfdom to continue in Russia, something that would contribute to a full-fledged revolt led by a pretender to the throne.
Catherine had no claim whatsoever to the Russian throne, according to Isabel de Madariaga, a professor emeritus of Slavonic Studies at the University of London in the opening of her book "A Short History of Catherine the Great" (Yale University Press, 2002).
Madariaga wrote that Catherine's opportunity came when her husband ascended to the throne as Peter III at the end of 1761. The two of them hated each other, and he ruled ineptly. “Though not stupid, he was totally lacking in common sense, and he quickly set about alienating all the powerful parties at court,” Madariaga wrote. He embarked on a seemingly pointless military campaign against Denmark, alienated the Orthodox clergy by attempting to take over church lands and even tried to marry his mistress.
“Most of his policies were so unpopular at court, so lacking in judgment, that several groups started plotting to dethrone him,” wrote Madariaga. Catherine got the jump on the others through her romantic relationship with Grigory Orlov, an officer in the Russian Guards. With the support of local military units, Catherine was proclaimed Empress of Russia in July 1762 while her husband was away from St. Petersburg, the capital. Peter III was then arrested, forced to abdicate the throne and ultimately killed.
Orlov would be one of many lovers that Catherine would have in her life. She alluded to her habit of often switching lovers in a letter she wrote to Prince Grigory Potemkin, a military leader with whom she had an affair in 1774-1775.
“The trouble is that my heart is loath to remain even one hour without love. It is said that human vices are often concealed under the cloak of kindness, and it is possible that such a disposition of the heart is more of a vice than a virtue, but I ought not to write this to you, for you might stop loving me or refuse to go to the army fearing I should forget you…” (From the book "The Russian Chronicles," 1998, Quadrillion Publishing, edited by Joseph Ryan)
Expanding the empire
Catherine started her reign with Russia already in a relatively favorable military position. Before her reign, Russia’s military had defeated the forces of Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, in battles at Gross-Jägersdorf (in 1757) and Kunersdorf (1759), victories that left Russia in a powerful position in Eastern Europe, wrote Simon Dixon, a professor at University College London, in his book "Catherine the Great" (Profile Books, 2009). He noted that with the death of the Polish king, Augustus III, in 1763, she was able to put one of her lovers, Stanislaw Poniatowski, on the Polish throne.
Poniatowski and Catherine ended up getting more than they bargained for. Catherine insisted that he grant rights to Poland’s Orthodox and Protestant worshipers, something that offended many Polish Catholics. This issue led to a rebellion, and in the end Russian troops were sent into Poland to support Poniatowski. The presence of these Russian troops raised concerns among neighboring states that Russia had ambitions on their own territories, wrote researcher Robert Massie in his book "Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman" (Random House, 2011).
Massie noted that the sultan of Turkey felt the most threatened, fearing that Russian troops in Poland would be able to pour into the Balkans, threatening Istanbul itself. After discussions with French diplomats, and an incident with Russian troops at the Turkish border in October 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia.
Frederick the Great felt that the war would amount to nothing, wrote Massie, noting that the Prussian king called it a contest between “the one-eyed and the blind.” This was to be proven wrong, however, as Russian troops made rapid advances in 1769, following them up with pivotal victories over the Turkish army at the Battles of Larga and Kagul, both fought in the summer of 1770. Also in 1770, a Russian naval squadron reached the eastern Mediterranean, inflicting a defeat on the Turkish fleet.
Catherine’s engagements in Poland and against Turkey worked favorably for her, noted Massie. In 1772, Poland was partitioned between Russia, Austria and Prussia, with subsequent partitions occurring in 1793 and 1795. Additionally, in 1774, after Russian troops were in a position to threaten Istanbul, Turkey sued for peace, with Russia gaining territories on the Black Sea coast and the Sea of Azov area.
Although Catherine didn’t go into battle personally, delegating that responsibility to those with military expertise, she had proven her military mettle, gaining a vast amount of new territory and influence for Russia.
Serfdom and rebellion
While Catherine enjoyed great military success, internally her country had a precarious social structure. Much of the population lived as serfs, in essence a form of slave. Their living conditions were horrible; Massie noted that few of the serfs working in the mines, foundries and factories lived to middle age.
Although Catherine is said to have personally opposed the institution, she tolerated it. In 1767, her government even published a decree condemning serfs who protested about their conditions.
“And should it so happen that even after the publication of the present decree of Her Imperial Majesty any serfs and peasants should cease to give the proper obedience to their landlords ... and should make bold to submit unlawful petitions complaining of their landlords, and especially to petition Her Imperial Majesty personally, then both those who make the complaints and those who write up the petitions shall be punished by the knout (whip) and forthwith deported to Nerchinsk to penal servitude for life…” read part of it. (Translation by G. Vernadsky from "A Source Book for Russian History" volume two, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972, through Fordham University website)
Catherine’s treatment of the serfs would come back to haunt her in 1773, when a man named Yemelyan Pugachev claimed to be Peter III (Catherine’s executed husband) and staged an insurrection. Much of his rhetoric focused on gaining support from serfs and others from Russia’s lower classes.
“We release you from all the taxes and financial burdens formerly inflicted on the peasants and all the people by wicked nobility and by bribe-taking town judges …” he decreed as he approached the town of Penza, offering the people land ownership. In the end, Pugachev was captured and executed, and the institution of serfdom continued on after Catherine’s death (Source of translation: the book "The Russian Chronicles").
Death and succession
Catherine died quietly in her bed on Nov. 17, 1796, at the age of 67 after suffering a stroke. After her death, her enemies spread gossip about her that has endured for centuries: that she had died while having sex with a horse. Others claimed that she died on the toilet. Neither rumor was true.
Catherine was succeeded by Paul I, who was supposedly her son with Peter III (Paul’s true father may have been Sergei Saltykov, one of Catherine’s lovers). In any event, Paul did not last long on the throne; he was assassinated in 1801.
While the institution of serfdom would gradually be abolished in Russia during the 19th century, the wide gap in wealth between the nobility and peasantry would continue on. These social problems came to a boiling point once again after Russia entered World War I in 1914. As Russia’s military position worsened and social conditions deteriorated at home, the Russian royal house lost support, with Nicholas II being executed in 1918, effectively ending the Russian royal family. The resulting civil war would see the rise of the world’s first communist state, one that would eventually become a global superpower."
"Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, was an empress of Russia who ruled from 1762-1796, the longest reign of any female Russian leader. Known more for her affairs of the heart than for affairs of state, she nevertheless greatly expanded her country's empire. Her accomplishments are often overshadowed by the legends and rumors about her scandalous personal life.
Sophie von Anhalt-Zerbst was born in 1729, the daughter of a Prussian prince. In her teenage years, she was married, unhappily, to a Russian prince who would become Emperor Peter III. She took on the name Catherine, or Ekaterina Alekseyevna. Peter was regarded by some as inept, and after only six months on the throne, Catherine overthrew him with the aid of Grigory Orlov, a military officer with whom she was having an affair. Her husband was later arrested and killed, securing her position on the throne.
Some regard Catherine as a socially enlightened ruler; she exchanged correspondence with the French philosopher Voltaire. She was a patron of the arts; the Hermitage Museum opened during her reign, beginning as part of her personal collection. Under her influence, Russians adopted western European philosophies and culture.
Female artists
Catherine's rule brought about something of a golden period for female artists. While it was Peter I (reign 1682-1725) that brought about reforms that gave women greater freedom to pursue education it was during the mid-18th century, the time that Catherine the Great rose to power, that female artists also rose in Russia.
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"Brandishing their newly won literacy, Russian women writers and poets, followed closely by Russian women composers, set pen to paper, starting in the mid-1700s," wrote Anne Harley, a professor of music at Scripps College, in a paper published in 2015 in the "Journal of Singing."
These female artists tended to be from the aristocratic class but they followed the lead of Catherine II ("the great") and other women who held power in Russia in the 18th century. "These female aristocrats followed a new model of empowered and extremely cultured womanhood, modeled by four women who ruled the Russian empire for more than two-thirds of the 18th century: Catherine I, Anna, Elisabeth, and Catherine II," wrote Harley in her paper.
Among the most prolific Russian female artists was Princess Natalia Ivanovna Kurakina (lived 1768-1831) who wrote at least 45 songs. "Kurakina's songs were so popular that Breitkopf (Petersburg) published a collection of eight of her French romances in 1795," wrote Harley.
Power and love
Catherine was also a successful military ruler; her troops conquered a great deal of new territory. She also allowed a system of serfdom to continue in Russia, something that would contribute to a full-fledged revolt led by a pretender to the throne.
Catherine had no claim whatsoever to the Russian throne, according to Isabel de Madariaga, a professor emeritus of Slavonic Studies at the University of London in the opening of her book "A Short History of Catherine the Great" (Yale University Press, 2002).
Madariaga wrote that Catherine's opportunity came when her husband ascended to the throne as Peter III at the end of 1761. The two of them hated each other, and he ruled ineptly. “Though not stupid, he was totally lacking in common sense, and he quickly set about alienating all the powerful parties at court,” Madariaga wrote. He embarked on a seemingly pointless military campaign against Denmark, alienated the Orthodox clergy by attempting to take over church lands and even tried to marry his mistress.
“Most of his policies were so unpopular at court, so lacking in judgment, that several groups started plotting to dethrone him,” wrote Madariaga. Catherine got the jump on the others through her romantic relationship with Grigory Orlov, an officer in the Russian Guards. With the support of local military units, Catherine was proclaimed Empress of Russia in July 1762 while her husband was away from St. Petersburg, the capital. Peter III was then arrested, forced to abdicate the throne and ultimately killed.
Orlov would be one of many lovers that Catherine would have in her life. She alluded to her habit of often switching lovers in a letter she wrote to Prince Grigory Potemkin, a military leader with whom she had an affair in 1774-1775.
“The trouble is that my heart is loath to remain even one hour without love. It is said that human vices are often concealed under the cloak of kindness, and it is possible that such a disposition of the heart is more of a vice than a virtue, but I ought not to write this to you, for you might stop loving me or refuse to go to the army fearing I should forget you…” (From the book "The Russian Chronicles," 1998, Quadrillion Publishing, edited by Joseph Ryan)
Expanding the empire
Catherine started her reign with Russia already in a relatively favorable military position. Before her reign, Russia’s military had defeated the forces of Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, in battles at Gross-Jägersdorf (in 1757) and Kunersdorf (1759), victories that left Russia in a powerful position in Eastern Europe, wrote Simon Dixon, a professor at University College London, in his book "Catherine the Great" (Profile Books, 2009). He noted that with the death of the Polish king, Augustus III, in 1763, she was able to put one of her lovers, Stanislaw Poniatowski, on the Polish throne.
Poniatowski and Catherine ended up getting more than they bargained for. Catherine insisted that he grant rights to Poland’s Orthodox and Protestant worshipers, something that offended many Polish Catholics. This issue led to a rebellion, and in the end Russian troops were sent into Poland to support Poniatowski. The presence of these Russian troops raised concerns among neighboring states that Russia had ambitions on their own territories, wrote researcher Robert Massie in his book "Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman" (Random House, 2011).
Massie noted that the sultan of Turkey felt the most threatened, fearing that Russian troops in Poland would be able to pour into the Balkans, threatening Istanbul itself. After discussions with French diplomats, and an incident with Russian troops at the Turkish border in October 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia.
Frederick the Great felt that the war would amount to nothing, wrote Massie, noting that the Prussian king called it a contest between “the one-eyed and the blind.” This was to be proven wrong, however, as Russian troops made rapid advances in 1769, following them up with pivotal victories over the Turkish army at the Battles of Larga and Kagul, both fought in the summer of 1770. Also in 1770, a Russian naval squadron reached the eastern Mediterranean, inflicting a defeat on the Turkish fleet.
Catherine’s engagements in Poland and against Turkey worked favorably for her, noted Massie. In 1772, Poland was partitioned between Russia, Austria and Prussia, with subsequent partitions occurring in 1793 and 1795. Additionally, in 1774, after Russian troops were in a position to threaten Istanbul, Turkey sued for peace, with Russia gaining territories on the Black Sea coast and the Sea of Azov area.
Although Catherine didn’t go into battle personally, delegating that responsibility to those with military expertise, she had proven her military mettle, gaining a vast amount of new territory and influence for Russia.
Serfdom and rebellion
While Catherine enjoyed great military success, internally her country had a precarious social structure. Much of the population lived as serfs, in essence a form of slave. Their living conditions were horrible; Massie noted that few of the serfs working in the mines, foundries and factories lived to middle age.
Although Catherine is said to have personally opposed the institution, she tolerated it. In 1767, her government even published a decree condemning serfs who protested about their conditions.
“And should it so happen that even after the publication of the present decree of Her Imperial Majesty any serfs and peasants should cease to give the proper obedience to their landlords ... and should make bold to submit unlawful petitions complaining of their landlords, and especially to petition Her Imperial Majesty personally, then both those who make the complaints and those who write up the petitions shall be punished by the knout (whip) and forthwith deported to Nerchinsk to penal servitude for life…” read part of it. (Translation by G. Vernadsky from "A Source Book for Russian History" volume two, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972, through Fordham University website)
Catherine’s treatment of the serfs would come back to haunt her in 1773, when a man named Yemelyan Pugachev claimed to be Peter III (Catherine’s executed husband) and staged an insurrection. Much of his rhetoric focused on gaining support from serfs and others from Russia’s lower classes.
“We release you from all the taxes and financial burdens formerly inflicted on the peasants and all the people by wicked nobility and by bribe-taking town judges …” he decreed as he approached the town of Penza, offering the people land ownership. In the end, Pugachev was captured and executed, and the institution of serfdom continued on after Catherine’s death (Source of translation: the book "The Russian Chronicles").
Death and succession
Catherine died quietly in her bed on Nov. 17, 1796, at the age of 67 after suffering a stroke. After her death, her enemies spread gossip about her that has endured for centuries: that she had died while having sex with a horse. Others claimed that she died on the toilet. Neither rumor was true.
Catherine was succeeded by Paul I, who was supposedly her son with Peter III (Paul’s true father may have been Sergei Saltykov, one of Catherine’s lovers). In any event, Paul did not last long on the throne; he was assassinated in 1801.
While the institution of serfdom would gradually be abolished in Russia during the 19th century, the wide gap in wealth between the nobility and peasantry would continue on. These social problems came to a boiling point once again after Russia entered World War I in 1914. As Russia’s military position worsened and social conditions deteriorated at home, the Russian royal house lost support, with Nicholas II being executed in 1918, effectively ending the Russian royal family. The resulting civil war would see the rise of the world’s first communist state, one that would eventually become a global superpower."
Catherine the Great: Biography, Accomplishments & Death
Posted from livescience.com
Russia
World History
Military History
Monarchy
Culture
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SGT (Join to see) my friend, I tell you I have learned more world-history from your reads/shares than I did in high-school. Keep it going my friend from Mogadore, Ohio. I used to fish with my POPs back in the 80's there on Mogadore Lake. One solid lake my friend and great fishing in Northeastern Ohio.
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Maj Marty Hogan SPC Margaret Higgins COL Mikel J. Burroughs CPL Dave Hoover Lt Col Charlie Brown Lt Col John (Jack) Christensen SCPO Morris Ramsey TSgt Joe C. PVT Mark Zehner Sgt (Join to see) SSG Michael Noll SSG Robert Mark Odom CPL Douglas Chrysler PO1 Tony Holland SGT Steve McFarland SPC Mark Huddleston PO3 Craig Phillips CW5 Jack Cardwell PO3 Phyllis Maynard
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Catherine the Great Documentary - Biography of the life of Catherine the Great
Catherine the Great Documentary. Biography of the life of Catherine the Great, from her upbringing in Prussia, to her marriage and overthrow of Peter III and...
Thank you my friend SGT (Join to see) for making us aware that on June 28, 1762, Russian Tsarina Catherine II [formerly Sophie von Anhalt-Zerbst] seized power declaring herself the sovereign ruler of Russia.
Catherine the Great Documentary - Biography of the life of Catherine the Great
Catherine the Great Documentary. Biography of the life of Catherine the Great, from her upbringing in Prussia, to her marriage and overthrow of Peter III and her rule over the Russia, from her reforms and campaigns, to her liberated and notorious private life.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNWrxlOlmUU
Images:
1. Allegory of Catherine’s Victory over the Turks (1772) – Stefano Torelli
2. Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
3. Coronation of Catherine II by Stefano Torelli
4. Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and the arts by Fedot Shubin.
Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
Biographies
1. bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]
2.russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great
Background from {[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]}
"Catherine II was Empress of Russia for more than 30 years and one of the country’s most influential rulers.
Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst was born on 2 May 1729 in Stettin, then part of Prussia (now Szczecin in Poland), the daughter of a minor German prince. In 1745, after being received into the Russian Orthodox Church, and changing her name to Catherine, she married Grand Duke Peter, grandson of Peter the Great and heir to the Russian throne.
The marriage was unhappy, but the couple did produce one son, Paul. In 1762 Catherine's husband became Tsar Peter III but he was soon overthrown with Catherine being declared empress. Peter was then killed shortly afterwards and it is not known whether Catherine had a part in his death. She subsequently had a series of lovers whom she promoted to high office, the most famous and successful of whom was Grigori Potemkin.
Catherine's major influences on her adopted country were in expanding Russia's borders and continuing the process of Westernisation begun by Peter the Great. During her reign she extended the Russian empire southwards and westwards, adding territories which included the Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. Agreements with Prussia and Austria led to three partitions of Poland, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, extending Russia's borders well into central Europe.
Catherine began as a political and social reformer but gradually grew more conservative as she got older. In 1767 she convened the Legislative Commission to codify Russia's laws and in the process modernised Russian life. She presented the commission with her Nakaz, (or 'Instruction'), a strikingly liberal document that presented the empress’s vision of the ideal government. The commission produced no desired results and the outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire in 1768 provided a good opportunity to disband it.
The Pugachev Rebellion of 1774-1775 gained huge support in Russia's western territories until it was extinguished by the Russian army. Catherine realised her heavy reliance on the nobility to control the country and instigated a series of reforms giving them greater control over their land and serfs. The 1785 ‘Charter to the Nobility’ established them as a separate estate in Russian society and assured their privileges. Catherine therefore ignored any concern she may previously have had for the plight of the serfs, whose status and rights declined further.
Catherine's main interests were in education and culture. She read widely and corresponded with many of the prominent thinkers of the era, including Voltaire and Diderot. She was a patron of the arts, literature and education and acquired an art collection which now forms the basis of the Hermitage Museum.
Catherine died in St Petersburg on 17 November 1796 and was succeeded by her son Paul.
Background from {[https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great/]}
Prominent Russians: Catherine II the Great
May 2, 1729 - November 6, 1796
Recognized worldwide as a noteworthy historical figure, Catherine the Great was one of the most prominent rulers of Russia and a figure deserving of admiration. During her rule from 1762 to 1796 the Russian Empress Catherine II made such progress in political power that it is hard to find similar examples in world history. She expanded the territory of the Russian Empire and improved its administration, following the policy of Westernization. She was reputed to be an "enlightened despot," however she was also praised for her generosity and humanity. Many historians associate her with all the significant events and trends in Russia's expanding world role. Though she always rejected the appellation "the Great," it endured. She was often compared to Peter the Great. One of her contemporaries described the essence of her rule, saying that Peter the Great created people in Russia, and Catherine put her heart into them. She reformed Russia gradually and calmly finished what Peter had done forcibly. Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky described the different approaches of these two outstanding sovereigns as follows: the Russian man wanted Russians to become Germans, and the German lady tried to make them Russians again.
Early years
Sophia Frederica Augusta was born in Germany, in the city of Stettin in Prussian Pomerania, on 2 May 1729 into the family of Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She spent her youth, which she always remembered with pleasure, in an atmosphere of intelligence, passion for knowledge and good humor, but also austerity. Her father was very religious and strict. He enjoyed the title of prince, but was also a commanding officer of a regiment of the Prussian army. Catherine’s mother, Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was very self-willed. She originated from the family of Holstein-Gottorp and was related to the monarchs of Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. She brought Catherine up in a most severe manner. Later Catherine herself recollected that she was always ready to get a slap in the face from her mother. Princess Sophia spent her childhood in Stettin and Zerbst. She occasionally visited Hamburg with her mother and spent her summers in Brunswick and Berlin.
Marriage to the heir of the Russian throne
In 1743, she was introduced into the Lutheran Church at the desire of her mother, though she easily changed her religion to the Russian Orthodox faith right before her marriage to the Russian Prince Peter. Her parents were very concerned that their daughter marry and make a good match.
In 1744 Catherine’s mother received an invitation from Empress Elizabeth of Russia to visit the country with her daughter, which meant she was planning to marry the heir to the Russian throne, Peter, to Catherine. However, Catherine had already met her husband to-be, who was one of her cousins. He was only 11 when they were introduced, but he was already reputed to be addicted to alcohol. Catherine didn’t experience any affection for her cousin, but was ready to obey her parents’ decision. Moreover, she realized that marrying the heir to the Russian throne would open the door to a most brilliant life, so coveted by the young and ambitious princess. Sophia and her mother made a journey to Russia in the winter of 1744, where she was converted to Orthodoxy and renamed Catherine. She was one year younger than Peter Fedorovich, the nephew of Elizabeth, the then reigning monarch of Russia. Their marriage was decided upon by their respective families.
The two were absolutely incompatible with each other. Still, Catherine tried to keep up appearances in front of the court and was patient with her silly and eccentric husband, as long as such pretence served her ambitious purposes. These two people unfortunately brought together by circumstances were destined to break up. Catherine, unlike her husband, was a woman of great talent, intelligence and ambition. Her strong and masculine mind, so eager to learn, had been trained and developed with all the learning and accomplishments of the age. She came to Russia with the intention of achieving a memorable career. Her husband, on the contrary, had an unstable personality, tempestuous, devoid of talent, and his education had been totally neglected. His disposition was good, but his mind was uncultivated. He constantly felt the superiority of his more gifted spouse. To add to this, Catherine had a graceful and beautifully proportioned figure. Peter’s inferiority was the first step to their mutual dislike, which led to fatal results for Peter.
Peter soon started cheating on Catherine, and she repaid in kind having her own favorites. Whether Peter was the father of Paul and Anna, the two children recorded as their offspring, remains a murky question, as five years of marriage brought no pregnancy and some said Peter could not have children.
Favoritism
One of Catherine’s ardent passions was Sergey Saltykov, the prince’s chamberlain. He had been a favorite among the ladies of the court, and he attempted to win Catherine’s affections. A handsome man with graceful manners, Saltykov won Catherine’s love. According to some historians, Catherine was advised to conceive an heir with Saltykov, and Paul, who after Catherine’s death became Emperor Paul I, was presumably fathered by him and raised by Empress Elizabeth. Two other favorites, Grigory Orlov and Stanislaw August Poniatowski, are said to have fathered two additional children - a boy and a girl that only lived sixteen months - who were never publicly acknowledged.
Although most of these men came from distinguished families and had outstanding political careers (Stanislaw Ponyatowski, for example, became the king of Poland in 1764), none used his status close to the Empress to affect state policy, with the exception of Grigory Potemkin, with whom Catherine was deeply in love in the mid-1770s and whom, a significant number of experts believe, she married secretly in 1774. Her last favorite was said to be the young and eccentric Platon Zubov. None of the men she had ever been devoted to was devoid of his title or his fortune after his relationship with Catherine ended. On the contrary, she scattered wealth and titles among them.
Ascent to power
Although love was an important part of Catherine's life, it did not overshadow her everlasting learning process and political interests. A sharp-witted and educated young woman, she read widely, particularly in French, which was at that time the first language of educated Europeans. She liked novels, plays and verse but was particularly interested in the writings of the major figures of the French Enlightenment such as Diderot and Voltaire. She spoke German, French and Russian. Catherine worked hard to master the Russian language, though she never managed to totally lose her accent. Catherine spelled badly but read, wrote and spoke Russian well. She quickly absorbed Russian culture, mastering the customs and history of the empire. The most literate ruler in Russian history, Catherine constantly patronized cultural life; in particular a flurry of satirical journals and comedies were published anonymously with her significant participation. Extensive traveling demonstrated in Catherine a great thirst for exploring the empire. She also knew to demonstrate devotion to the Russian Orthodox faith and the Russian state.
An instinctive politician, she cultivated friendships among the court elite. But her road to the Russian throne was thorny.
When Empress Elizabeth died on 25 December 1761, her nephew Peter was proclaimed Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became Empress. Friends warned her that she might not enjoy her status for long since Peter was planning to divorce her and she was advised to flee. She decided to ignore the warning, and the wisdom of her decision was soon demonstrated. A few months after taking the throne Peter built up much hostility among government, military and church leaders. So, a group of them began plotting a coup to remove him. They wanted to place his 7-year-old son, Paul, on the throne, and name Catherine as regent until the boy should come of age.
But they underestimated Catherine's ambition; she aimed at a bigger role for herself. On 28 June 1762, with the aid of her lover Grigory Orlov, she rallied the troops of Saint Petersburg to her support and declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia, later naming Paul her heir. She had Peter arrested and forced him to sign an act of abdication. When he sought permission to leave the country, she refused it, intending to hold him prisoner for life. He had only a few days to live, though, as shortly after his arrest he was killed in a fight with his captors.
A ruler of wide interests, Catherine was involved simultaneously in diverse matters. Very hardworking, her days were mapped out to the last five-minute increments and she maintained this schedule until her death. The only thing that was subject to changes was her sleeping hours. At the height of her reign she woke up at 5 am, and as she grew older she started waking up and 6 am, which was late for her. In her Early Reign (1762-1764) Catherine had far-reaching plans regarding both domestic and foreign policy, but during the first years in power her attention was directed towards strengthening her position. She knew that a number of influential people considered her ascent to power illegal and her son, Paul, the rightful ruler. Catherine also realized that without the support of the nobility and the military she could be overthrown by a coup as quickly as she had been brought to power by one. Her reaction to this situation was to jump at every opportunity to conciliate the nobility and the military and at the same time strike sharply at those who sought to replace her with Paul.
As for general policy, Catherine understood that Russia needed an extended period of peace during which to concentrate on domestic affairs and that peace required a cautious foreign policy. The able Count Nikita Panin, whom she placed in charge of foreign affairs, was well chosen to carry out such a policy. By 1764 Catherine felt secure enough to begin work on reform (1764-1768). Her stance on the reforms placed her among the 18th-century rulers known as "enlightened despots." Influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, these monarchs thought that a wise and generous ruler, living and ruling by the dictates of reason, could ensure the well being of their people. Catherine's government followed a general policy of developing public confidence with the aim of leading Russia towards full and equal membership in Europe. She expanded the Senate in 1762, bolstered the office of Procurator-General in 1763 and 1764 she incorporated Ukraine into the empire by abolishing a self-governed Cossack community in Southern Ukraine centered at the Dnieper River that had its own political and administrative center, the hetmanship, also known as hetmanate.
It was in the spirit of the Enlightenment that Catherine carried out her first major reform, that of Russia's legal system, which was based on the old and inefficient Code of Laws, dating from 1649. For more than two years, inspired by the writings of Montesquieu and the Italian jurist Beccaria, she worked on the "Instruction," a set of guidelines for those entrusted with reforming the legal system. This work became widely known in Europe and caused a sensation because it called for a legal system way ahead of its time. It proposed a system providing equal protection under the law for all persons and emphasized prevention of criminal acts rather than harsh punishment for them. In June 1767 the Empress created the Legislative Commission to revise the old laws in accordance with the "Instruction." The Commission was a body consisting of delegates from almost all levels of society except for the serfs, the lowest class. Like many others, Catherine had great expectations about what the Commission might accomplish, but unfortunately, the delegates devoted most of their time exposing their own grievances, rather than focusing on the job. Consequently, despite the year-long series of sessions, they made no progress, and Catherine suspended the meetings at the end of 1768. The fact that she never reconvened the Commission has been interpreted by some historians as an indication that she had lost faith in the delegates. Others feel, however, that she was more interested in having the reputation of being an "enlightened" ruler than in actually being one. According to some sources she was strongly opposed to serfdom, but preferred not to arouse the nobility’s discontent, as she needed their support.
Foreign and domestic affairs
In the meantime, foreign affairs began to demand Catherine's close attention.
Catherine attempted to increase Russia's power at the expense of its weaker neighbors, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. She sent troops to help the Polish king Stanislaw (Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Catherine’s former lover) in suppressing a nationalist revolt aimed at reducing Russia's influence in Poland. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 resulted in bringing Southern Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus and the Crimea under the possession of the Russian Empire. The war broke out as a result of an internal conflict within Poland. A squadron of Cossacks in Russian service entered Balta (in Ottoman territory) during the pursuit of a Polish Bar Confederation force. The Ottoman Empire accused the troops of having murdered its subjects in the town of Balta. The Russian authorities denied the charge. Following this border incident the Turkish Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, who offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy. Thus in 1772 Austria and Russia annexed Polish territory in the First Partition of Poland. Two years later, after long-lasting negotiations, Catherine concluded peace with Turkey, getting relatively modest but nonetheless important gains. Russia received as a territorial concession its first foothold on the Black Sea coast, and Russian merchant ships were allowed to sail in the Black Sea and through the Dardanelles.
Even before the conclusion of peace with the Turks, Catherine had to face a revolt led by the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev. It proved to be the most odious internal threat she ever faced. The rebel leader claimed to be the deposed Emperor Peter III, as his death certificate was fabricated. Pugachev, posing as a wealthy merchant, reportedly tested the feelings of the Cossacks at the Yaik (a river, nowadays called the Ural and known as Yaik before 1775, flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan) by suggesting that he lead a mass exodus into Turkey. When the majority seemed to agree to his plan, he thought it was the right time to begin his revolt. Though he was arrested shortly after and held for five months at Kazan, he would escape and return to the Yaik to start his revolt. By promising to return several privileges to the Cossacks and to restore the Old Belief, he was able to gain the support he needed to promote his identity as Peter III. Soon tens of thousands were following him and the uprising, which started in the south and spread up the Volga River, moved within threatening range of Moscow. Pugachev's defeat required several major expeditions by the imperial forces, and a feeling of security returned to the government only after his capture late in 1774. After the rebellion Catherine had the Yaik Cossaks renamed Ural Cossacks and the Yaik River, the Ural River.
The revolt was a major landmark in Catherine's reign. Deeply alarmed by it, she concluded, along with most of the aristocracy, that the best safeguard against rebellion would be the strengthening of the local administrative authority of the nobility rather than measures to improve the conditions of the lower classes.
With regards to foreign affairs, Catherine gradually came to believe that it would be possible to strip Turkey of both Constantinople and its European possessions if only Austria would join Russia in the assault. And, having gained Austria’s support, she began to conduct a policy so aggressive towards Turkey that in 1787 the Sultan finally declared war on Russia. As in past encounters, Russian forces proved superior, but they required four years to totally defeat the Turks. By the Treaty of Jassy (1792) Catherine won from Turkey a large area on the Black Sea coast and gained Turkish agreement to Russia's annexation of the Crimean Peninsula. But she was not able to fulfill her original plan of annexing Constantinople and Turkey's European territory, since Austria had withdrawn its support for this action and other powers strongly opposed it. While the Russo-Turkish War was in progress, Polish nationalists again tried to strengthen the Polish state and end Russian influence within it. As before, their efforts were fruitless, leading only to another disaster for their unfortunate country – the Second Partition of Poland (1793), in which Russia and Prussia annexed Polish territory; and the Third Partition (1795), in which Russia, Austria and Prussia divided what remained of an independent Poland.
In her domestic policy, Catherine owes much of her glory to her accomplishments in the dozen years following the Pugachev uprising, when she devoted her time and talent to the administrative operation of the government. Her reorganization in 1775 of the provincial administration – in such a way as to favor the nobility – passed the test of time but her reorganization of municipal government 10 years later was not so successful.
Catherine devoted much attention to expanding the country's educational facilities. She gave serious consideration to various plans and in 1786 adopted one providing for a large-scale educational system. Unfortunately she was unable to carry out the entire plan. But she did add a number of the country's elementary and secondary schools, while some of the remaining points of her plan were carried out by her successors.
Another one of Catherine's chief domestic concerns was the enhancement of Russia's economic strength. To this end she encouraged trade by lifting various restrictions and promoting the development of under-populated areas by attracting both Russians and foreigners to settle there.
The arts and sciences received much attention during Catherine's reign not only because she believed them to be important as such, but also because she saw them as a means by which Russia could acquire a reputation as a center of civilization. Under her direction Saint Petersburg was partly rebuilt and became one of the world's most dazzling capitals. With her encouragement, theater, music and painting flourished, while, under her patronage, the Academy of Sciences reached new heights. During her reign Saint Petersburg became one of the major cultural centers of Europe. In 1768 she founded the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books into Russian, superseded in 1782 by the Russian Academy, which sponsored a comprehensive dictionary between 1788 and 1796. Most strikingly, she founded the Hermitage, a museum annex to the Winter Palace, to house burgeoning collections of European paintings and other masterpieces of art.
As she grew older, Catherine became greatly concerned because her heir, Paul, who had long displayed violent and unpredictable extremes of emotion, was becoming so unsettled and erratic that she doubted he would make a fit successor to the throne. She considered disclaiming him as heir and naming his oldest son, Aleksandr, as her successor. But before she was able to change her original arrangement, she died of a stroke on 6 November 1796.
During her reign the territory of Russia increased significantly: out of 50 provinces 11 were acquired while she was in power. The population of the country grew almost twofold. She ordered 144 new cities and towns built, founding more than four cities per year of her reign. Russia also saw a flood of European immigrants. She boosted twofold the strength of the Russian army and increased more than threefold the number of lead ships of the Russian fleet. Her army and the fleet triumphantly came out victorious 78 times strengthening Russia’s position in the world.
Although very ambitious, she never exaggerated her significance for Russia, saying that whatever she had done was a drop in the ocean. Her close friends described her as a very good-looking woman throughout her entire life and appreciated her amiability, noble simplicity and tact. She was said to prefer to praise loudly, but to scold quietly.
In an epitaph to be inscribed on her grave, which she wrote long before she died, Catherine perhaps best surmised herself: “Catherine II rests here. She came to Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of 14 she took a three-sided decision: to enchant her husband, Empress Elizabeth and the people of Russia. And she used every single chance to succeed in this. Eighteen years of loneliness and boredom made her read many books. As she mounted to the Russian throne she did her best to give her people happiness, freedom and wellbeing. She forgave people easily and hated nobody. She was charitable, good-tempered and loved life. She was a true republican in her politics and was kind-hearted. She had friends. She worked easily. She loved social life and the arts.
Written by Yulia Bokova, RT Correspondent"
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Catherine the Great Documentary - Biography of the life of Catherine the Great
Catherine the Great Documentary. Biography of the life of Catherine the Great, from her upbringing in Prussia, to her marriage and overthrow of Peter III and her rule over the Russia, from her reforms and campaigns, to her liberated and notorious private life.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNWrxlOlmUU
Images:
1. Allegory of Catherine’s Victory over the Turks (1772) – Stefano Torelli
2. Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
3. Coronation of Catherine II by Stefano Torelli
4. Marble statue of Catherine II in the guise of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and the arts by Fedot Shubin.
Grand Duchess Catherine Alexeevna by Georg Christoph Grooth (1745, Hermitage)
Biographies
1. bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]
2.russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great
Background from {[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/catherine_the_great.shtml]}
"Catherine II was Empress of Russia for more than 30 years and one of the country’s most influential rulers.
Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst was born on 2 May 1729 in Stettin, then part of Prussia (now Szczecin in Poland), the daughter of a minor German prince. In 1745, after being received into the Russian Orthodox Church, and changing her name to Catherine, she married Grand Duke Peter, grandson of Peter the Great and heir to the Russian throne.
The marriage was unhappy, but the couple did produce one son, Paul. In 1762 Catherine's husband became Tsar Peter III but he was soon overthrown with Catherine being declared empress. Peter was then killed shortly afterwards and it is not known whether Catherine had a part in his death. She subsequently had a series of lovers whom she promoted to high office, the most famous and successful of whom was Grigori Potemkin.
Catherine's major influences on her adopted country were in expanding Russia's borders and continuing the process of Westernisation begun by Peter the Great. During her reign she extended the Russian empire southwards and westwards, adding territories which included the Crimea, Belarus and Lithuania. Agreements with Prussia and Austria led to three partitions of Poland, in 1772, 1793, and 1795, extending Russia's borders well into central Europe.
Catherine began as a political and social reformer but gradually grew more conservative as she got older. In 1767 she convened the Legislative Commission to codify Russia's laws and in the process modernised Russian life. She presented the commission with her Nakaz, (or 'Instruction'), a strikingly liberal document that presented the empress’s vision of the ideal government. The commission produced no desired results and the outbreak of war against the Ottoman Empire in 1768 provided a good opportunity to disband it.
The Pugachev Rebellion of 1774-1775 gained huge support in Russia's western territories until it was extinguished by the Russian army. Catherine realised her heavy reliance on the nobility to control the country and instigated a series of reforms giving them greater control over their land and serfs. The 1785 ‘Charter to the Nobility’ established them as a separate estate in Russian society and assured their privileges. Catherine therefore ignored any concern she may previously have had for the plight of the serfs, whose status and rights declined further.
Catherine's main interests were in education and culture. She read widely and corresponded with many of the prominent thinkers of the era, including Voltaire and Diderot. She was a patron of the arts, literature and education and acquired an art collection which now forms the basis of the Hermitage Museum.
Catherine died in St Petersburg on 17 November 1796 and was succeeded by her son Paul.
Background from {[https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/catherine-ii-the-great/]}
Prominent Russians: Catherine II the Great
May 2, 1729 - November 6, 1796
Recognized worldwide as a noteworthy historical figure, Catherine the Great was one of the most prominent rulers of Russia and a figure deserving of admiration. During her rule from 1762 to 1796 the Russian Empress Catherine II made such progress in political power that it is hard to find similar examples in world history. She expanded the territory of the Russian Empire and improved its administration, following the policy of Westernization. She was reputed to be an "enlightened despot," however she was also praised for her generosity and humanity. Many historians associate her with all the significant events and trends in Russia's expanding world role. Though she always rejected the appellation "the Great," it endured. She was often compared to Peter the Great. One of her contemporaries described the essence of her rule, saying that Peter the Great created people in Russia, and Catherine put her heart into them. She reformed Russia gradually and calmly finished what Peter had done forcibly. Prince Pyotr Vyazemsky described the different approaches of these two outstanding sovereigns as follows: the Russian man wanted Russians to become Germans, and the German lady tried to make them Russians again.
Early years
Sophia Frederica Augusta was born in Germany, in the city of Stettin in Prussian Pomerania, on 2 May 1729 into the family of Christian Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. She spent her youth, which she always remembered with pleasure, in an atmosphere of intelligence, passion for knowledge and good humor, but also austerity. Her father was very religious and strict. He enjoyed the title of prince, but was also a commanding officer of a regiment of the Prussian army. Catherine’s mother, Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, was very self-willed. She originated from the family of Holstein-Gottorp and was related to the monarchs of Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. She brought Catherine up in a most severe manner. Later Catherine herself recollected that she was always ready to get a slap in the face from her mother. Princess Sophia spent her childhood in Stettin and Zerbst. She occasionally visited Hamburg with her mother and spent her summers in Brunswick and Berlin.
Marriage to the heir of the Russian throne
In 1743, she was introduced into the Lutheran Church at the desire of her mother, though she easily changed her religion to the Russian Orthodox faith right before her marriage to the Russian Prince Peter. Her parents were very concerned that their daughter marry and make a good match.
In 1744 Catherine’s mother received an invitation from Empress Elizabeth of Russia to visit the country with her daughter, which meant she was planning to marry the heir to the Russian throne, Peter, to Catherine. However, Catherine had already met her husband to-be, who was one of her cousins. He was only 11 when they were introduced, but he was already reputed to be addicted to alcohol. Catherine didn’t experience any affection for her cousin, but was ready to obey her parents’ decision. Moreover, she realized that marrying the heir to the Russian throne would open the door to a most brilliant life, so coveted by the young and ambitious princess. Sophia and her mother made a journey to Russia in the winter of 1744, where she was converted to Orthodoxy and renamed Catherine. She was one year younger than Peter Fedorovich, the nephew of Elizabeth, the then reigning monarch of Russia. Their marriage was decided upon by their respective families.
The two were absolutely incompatible with each other. Still, Catherine tried to keep up appearances in front of the court and was patient with her silly and eccentric husband, as long as such pretence served her ambitious purposes. These two people unfortunately brought together by circumstances were destined to break up. Catherine, unlike her husband, was a woman of great talent, intelligence and ambition. Her strong and masculine mind, so eager to learn, had been trained and developed with all the learning and accomplishments of the age. She came to Russia with the intention of achieving a memorable career. Her husband, on the contrary, had an unstable personality, tempestuous, devoid of talent, and his education had been totally neglected. His disposition was good, but his mind was uncultivated. He constantly felt the superiority of his more gifted spouse. To add to this, Catherine had a graceful and beautifully proportioned figure. Peter’s inferiority was the first step to their mutual dislike, which led to fatal results for Peter.
Peter soon started cheating on Catherine, and she repaid in kind having her own favorites. Whether Peter was the father of Paul and Anna, the two children recorded as their offspring, remains a murky question, as five years of marriage brought no pregnancy and some said Peter could not have children.
Favoritism
One of Catherine’s ardent passions was Sergey Saltykov, the prince’s chamberlain. He had been a favorite among the ladies of the court, and he attempted to win Catherine’s affections. A handsome man with graceful manners, Saltykov won Catherine’s love. According to some historians, Catherine was advised to conceive an heir with Saltykov, and Paul, who after Catherine’s death became Emperor Paul I, was presumably fathered by him and raised by Empress Elizabeth. Two other favorites, Grigory Orlov and Stanislaw August Poniatowski, are said to have fathered two additional children - a boy and a girl that only lived sixteen months - who were never publicly acknowledged.
Although most of these men came from distinguished families and had outstanding political careers (Stanislaw Ponyatowski, for example, became the king of Poland in 1764), none used his status close to the Empress to affect state policy, with the exception of Grigory Potemkin, with whom Catherine was deeply in love in the mid-1770s and whom, a significant number of experts believe, she married secretly in 1774. Her last favorite was said to be the young and eccentric Platon Zubov. None of the men she had ever been devoted to was devoid of his title or his fortune after his relationship with Catherine ended. On the contrary, she scattered wealth and titles among them.
Ascent to power
Although love was an important part of Catherine's life, it did not overshadow her everlasting learning process and political interests. A sharp-witted and educated young woman, she read widely, particularly in French, which was at that time the first language of educated Europeans. She liked novels, plays and verse but was particularly interested in the writings of the major figures of the French Enlightenment such as Diderot and Voltaire. She spoke German, French and Russian. Catherine worked hard to master the Russian language, though she never managed to totally lose her accent. Catherine spelled badly but read, wrote and spoke Russian well. She quickly absorbed Russian culture, mastering the customs and history of the empire. The most literate ruler in Russian history, Catherine constantly patronized cultural life; in particular a flurry of satirical journals and comedies were published anonymously with her significant participation. Extensive traveling demonstrated in Catherine a great thirst for exploring the empire. She also knew to demonstrate devotion to the Russian Orthodox faith and the Russian state.
An instinctive politician, she cultivated friendships among the court elite. But her road to the Russian throne was thorny.
When Empress Elizabeth died on 25 December 1761, her nephew Peter was proclaimed Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became Empress. Friends warned her that she might not enjoy her status for long since Peter was planning to divorce her and she was advised to flee. She decided to ignore the warning, and the wisdom of her decision was soon demonstrated. A few months after taking the throne Peter built up much hostility among government, military and church leaders. So, a group of them began plotting a coup to remove him. They wanted to place his 7-year-old son, Paul, on the throne, and name Catherine as regent until the boy should come of age.
But they underestimated Catherine's ambition; she aimed at a bigger role for herself. On 28 June 1762, with the aid of her lover Grigory Orlov, she rallied the troops of Saint Petersburg to her support and declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia, later naming Paul her heir. She had Peter arrested and forced him to sign an act of abdication. When he sought permission to leave the country, she refused it, intending to hold him prisoner for life. He had only a few days to live, though, as shortly after his arrest he was killed in a fight with his captors.
A ruler of wide interests, Catherine was involved simultaneously in diverse matters. Very hardworking, her days were mapped out to the last five-minute increments and she maintained this schedule until her death. The only thing that was subject to changes was her sleeping hours. At the height of her reign she woke up at 5 am, and as she grew older she started waking up and 6 am, which was late for her. In her Early Reign (1762-1764) Catherine had far-reaching plans regarding both domestic and foreign policy, but during the first years in power her attention was directed towards strengthening her position. She knew that a number of influential people considered her ascent to power illegal and her son, Paul, the rightful ruler. Catherine also realized that without the support of the nobility and the military she could be overthrown by a coup as quickly as she had been brought to power by one. Her reaction to this situation was to jump at every opportunity to conciliate the nobility and the military and at the same time strike sharply at those who sought to replace her with Paul.
As for general policy, Catherine understood that Russia needed an extended period of peace during which to concentrate on domestic affairs and that peace required a cautious foreign policy. The able Count Nikita Panin, whom she placed in charge of foreign affairs, was well chosen to carry out such a policy. By 1764 Catherine felt secure enough to begin work on reform (1764-1768). Her stance on the reforms placed her among the 18th-century rulers known as "enlightened despots." Influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment, these monarchs thought that a wise and generous ruler, living and ruling by the dictates of reason, could ensure the well being of their people. Catherine's government followed a general policy of developing public confidence with the aim of leading Russia towards full and equal membership in Europe. She expanded the Senate in 1762, bolstered the office of Procurator-General in 1763 and 1764 she incorporated Ukraine into the empire by abolishing a self-governed Cossack community in Southern Ukraine centered at the Dnieper River that had its own political and administrative center, the hetmanship, also known as hetmanate.
It was in the spirit of the Enlightenment that Catherine carried out her first major reform, that of Russia's legal system, which was based on the old and inefficient Code of Laws, dating from 1649. For more than two years, inspired by the writings of Montesquieu and the Italian jurist Beccaria, she worked on the "Instruction," a set of guidelines for those entrusted with reforming the legal system. This work became widely known in Europe and caused a sensation because it called for a legal system way ahead of its time. It proposed a system providing equal protection under the law for all persons and emphasized prevention of criminal acts rather than harsh punishment for them. In June 1767 the Empress created the Legislative Commission to revise the old laws in accordance with the "Instruction." The Commission was a body consisting of delegates from almost all levels of society except for the serfs, the lowest class. Like many others, Catherine had great expectations about what the Commission might accomplish, but unfortunately, the delegates devoted most of their time exposing their own grievances, rather than focusing on the job. Consequently, despite the year-long series of sessions, they made no progress, and Catherine suspended the meetings at the end of 1768. The fact that she never reconvened the Commission has been interpreted by some historians as an indication that she had lost faith in the delegates. Others feel, however, that she was more interested in having the reputation of being an "enlightened" ruler than in actually being one. According to some sources she was strongly opposed to serfdom, but preferred not to arouse the nobility’s discontent, as she needed their support.
Foreign and domestic affairs
In the meantime, foreign affairs began to demand Catherine's close attention.
Catherine attempted to increase Russia's power at the expense of its weaker neighbors, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. She sent troops to help the Polish king Stanislaw (Stanislaw August Poniatowski, Catherine’s former lover) in suppressing a nationalist revolt aimed at reducing Russia's influence in Poland. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 resulted in bringing Southern Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus and the Crimea under the possession of the Russian Empire. The war broke out as a result of an internal conflict within Poland. A squadron of Cossacks in Russian service entered Balta (in Ottoman territory) during the pursuit of a Polish Bar Confederation force. The Ottoman Empire accused the troops of having murdered its subjects in the town of Balta. The Russian authorities denied the charge. Following this border incident the Turkish Sultan Mustafa III declared war on Russia. The Turks formed an alliance with the Polish opposition forces of Bar Confederation, while Russia was supported by Great Britain, who offered naval advisers to the Imperial Russian Navy. Thus in 1772 Austria and Russia annexed Polish territory in the First Partition of Poland. Two years later, after long-lasting negotiations, Catherine concluded peace with Turkey, getting relatively modest but nonetheless important gains. Russia received as a territorial concession its first foothold on the Black Sea coast, and Russian merchant ships were allowed to sail in the Black Sea and through the Dardanelles.
Even before the conclusion of peace with the Turks, Catherine had to face a revolt led by the Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev. It proved to be the most odious internal threat she ever faced. The rebel leader claimed to be the deposed Emperor Peter III, as his death certificate was fabricated. Pugachev, posing as a wealthy merchant, reportedly tested the feelings of the Cossacks at the Yaik (a river, nowadays called the Ural and known as Yaik before 1775, flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan) by suggesting that he lead a mass exodus into Turkey. When the majority seemed to agree to his plan, he thought it was the right time to begin his revolt. Though he was arrested shortly after and held for five months at Kazan, he would escape and return to the Yaik to start his revolt. By promising to return several privileges to the Cossacks and to restore the Old Belief, he was able to gain the support he needed to promote his identity as Peter III. Soon tens of thousands were following him and the uprising, which started in the south and spread up the Volga River, moved within threatening range of Moscow. Pugachev's defeat required several major expeditions by the imperial forces, and a feeling of security returned to the government only after his capture late in 1774. After the rebellion Catherine had the Yaik Cossaks renamed Ural Cossacks and the Yaik River, the Ural River.
The revolt was a major landmark in Catherine's reign. Deeply alarmed by it, she concluded, along with most of the aristocracy, that the best safeguard against rebellion would be the strengthening of the local administrative authority of the nobility rather than measures to improve the conditions of the lower classes.
With regards to foreign affairs, Catherine gradually came to believe that it would be possible to strip Turkey of both Constantinople and its European possessions if only Austria would join Russia in the assault. And, having gained Austria’s support, she began to conduct a policy so aggressive towards Turkey that in 1787 the Sultan finally declared war on Russia. As in past encounters, Russian forces proved superior, but they required four years to totally defeat the Turks. By the Treaty of Jassy (1792) Catherine won from Turkey a large area on the Black Sea coast and gained Turkish agreement to Russia's annexation of the Crimean Peninsula. But she was not able to fulfill her original plan of annexing Constantinople and Turkey's European territory, since Austria had withdrawn its support for this action and other powers strongly opposed it. While the Russo-Turkish War was in progress, Polish nationalists again tried to strengthen the Polish state and end Russian influence within it. As before, their efforts were fruitless, leading only to another disaster for their unfortunate country – the Second Partition of Poland (1793), in which Russia and Prussia annexed Polish territory; and the Third Partition (1795), in which Russia, Austria and Prussia divided what remained of an independent Poland.
In her domestic policy, Catherine owes much of her glory to her accomplishments in the dozen years following the Pugachev uprising, when she devoted her time and talent to the administrative operation of the government. Her reorganization in 1775 of the provincial administration – in such a way as to favor the nobility – passed the test of time but her reorganization of municipal government 10 years later was not so successful.
Catherine devoted much attention to expanding the country's educational facilities. She gave serious consideration to various plans and in 1786 adopted one providing for a large-scale educational system. Unfortunately she was unable to carry out the entire plan. But she did add a number of the country's elementary and secondary schools, while some of the remaining points of her plan were carried out by her successors.
Another one of Catherine's chief domestic concerns was the enhancement of Russia's economic strength. To this end she encouraged trade by lifting various restrictions and promoting the development of under-populated areas by attracting both Russians and foreigners to settle there.
The arts and sciences received much attention during Catherine's reign not only because she believed them to be important as such, but also because she saw them as a means by which Russia could acquire a reputation as a center of civilization. Under her direction Saint Petersburg was partly rebuilt and became one of the world's most dazzling capitals. With her encouragement, theater, music and painting flourished, while, under her patronage, the Academy of Sciences reached new heights. During her reign Saint Petersburg became one of the major cultural centers of Europe. In 1768 she founded the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books into Russian, superseded in 1782 by the Russian Academy, which sponsored a comprehensive dictionary between 1788 and 1796. Most strikingly, she founded the Hermitage, a museum annex to the Winter Palace, to house burgeoning collections of European paintings and other masterpieces of art.
As she grew older, Catherine became greatly concerned because her heir, Paul, who had long displayed violent and unpredictable extremes of emotion, was becoming so unsettled and erratic that she doubted he would make a fit successor to the throne. She considered disclaiming him as heir and naming his oldest son, Aleksandr, as her successor. But before she was able to change her original arrangement, she died of a stroke on 6 November 1796.
During her reign the territory of Russia increased significantly: out of 50 provinces 11 were acquired while she was in power. The population of the country grew almost twofold. She ordered 144 new cities and towns built, founding more than four cities per year of her reign. Russia also saw a flood of European immigrants. She boosted twofold the strength of the Russian army and increased more than threefold the number of lead ships of the Russian fleet. Her army and the fleet triumphantly came out victorious 78 times strengthening Russia’s position in the world.
Although very ambitious, she never exaggerated her significance for Russia, saying that whatever she had done was a drop in the ocean. Her close friends described her as a very good-looking woman throughout her entire life and appreciated her amiability, noble simplicity and tact. She was said to prefer to praise loudly, but to scold quietly.
In an epitaph to be inscribed on her grave, which she wrote long before she died, Catherine perhaps best surmised herself: “Catherine II rests here. She came to Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of 14 she took a three-sided decision: to enchant her husband, Empress Elizabeth and the people of Russia. And she used every single chance to succeed in this. Eighteen years of loneliness and boredom made her read many books. As she mounted to the Russian throne she did her best to give her people happiness, freedom and wellbeing. She forgave people easily and hated nobody. She was charitable, good-tempered and loved life. She was a true republican in her politics and was kind-hearted. She had friends. She worked easily. She loved social life and the arts.
Written by Yulia Bokova, RT Correspondent"
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This is a fact based documentary about Empress Catherine the Great. Russian Empress 1762-1796.
Catherine the Great
This is a fact based documentary about Empress Catherine the Great. Russian Empress 1762-1796.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hDnPAN5mJQ
Images:
1. Coronation portrait of Catherine II by Stefano Torelli (1763-6, Russian museum)
2. Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov by Ivan Fedorov
3. Map of the growth of the Russia Empire from 1558-1775
4. 2007 photo of the Moscow Orphanage or Foundling Home – A project conceived by Catherine the Great
Background from {[https://learnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments}]
"10 MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA
By Anirudh
May 24, 2017
5417
Catherine II (1729 – 1796), known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of the Russian Empire for a period of 34 years from 1762 till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader in the history of Russia. She expanded her empire by conquest and diplomacy making it one of the leading powers in Europe. By the end of her reign, around 200,000 square miles had been added to the territory of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was an able governor and she introduced a number of educational and administrative reforms which had a lasting impact on her nation. She founded the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the renowned Hermitage Museum began as her personal collection. Catherine II also played a key role in encouraging the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences. She is considered one of the greatest monarchs of Russia and such was her impact that the period of her rule is known as the Catherinian Era. Here are the 10 major accomplishments of Catherine the Great.
#1 CATHERINE WAS THE LONGEST REIGNING FEMALE LEADER OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
On 21st August 1745, Catherine married Peter, the nephew and heir of Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the death of the Elizabeth in January 1762, Peter succeeded her as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. She overthrew her husband in a coup on July 8 of the same year and the following day, she declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia. Her reign lasted for a period of 34 years, till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader of Russia. She is also perhaps the most renowned empress of the Russian Empire and, due to her achievements, she is referred to as Catherine the Great. The period of her rule is called the Catherinian Era and is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire. Catherine the Great is regarded as one of the greatest Russian rulers.
#2 SHE SUCCESSFULLY LED RUSSIA AGAINST THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In order to strengthen its power, it was necessary for Russia to have access to a major port. The Black Sea was however controlled by the Ottoman Empire, the largest and most influential Muslim empire in history. This situation led to the Russo-Turkish wars, a series of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire from late 17th to early 19th century. Under Catherine the Great, Russia handed the Turks some of the heaviest defeats in their history during the 1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War. It was concluded with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which gave Russia the right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea; granted it the territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn; made Crimea a protectorate of Russia; and granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
#3 SHE MADE RUSSIA THE DOMINANT POWER IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE
In 1783, Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright and in 1787, the Ottomans restarted hostilities in the second major Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). This conflict proved to be as disastrous for the Turks as the first. Russia won a series of victories and ultimately the Ottomans were compelled to sign the Treaty of Jassy, which recognized Russian Empire’s annexation of the Crimea and granted it the Yedisan region, the territory between Dniester and Bug rivers. The Russian Empire thus now had control over the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast. Through her successful campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine the Great made Russia the dominant power in south-eastern Europe.
#4 CATHERINE II RAPIDLY EXPANDED THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE THROUGH CONQUEST AND DIPLOMACY
Apart from victories against the Ottoman Empire, Russia under Catherine II defeated the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth leading to the partitioning of Poland and division of its territory between Russia, Prussia and Austria with Russia gaining the largest share. It also started to colonize Alaska, establishing Russian America; and waged a war against Persia in 1796 making a significant advance into their territory but Catherine died the same year and her successor Paul I ordered the Russian troops to retreat. By the end of Catherine II’s reign, the Russian Empire had grown larger and stronger than ever before. It had expanded rapidly by conquest and diplomacy with around 200,000 square miles (518,000 square kilometers) being added to its territory. Catherine II thus established Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
#5 SHE IMPLEMENTED A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS TO IMPROVE EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Catherine II passed a series of important educational reforms. By 1782, she set up a commission to study the educational systems of many different countries. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was put into effect. This established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools which were free of charge, co-educational and open to all of the free classes (not serfs). It also regulated, in detail, the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to this, teachers were provided with the “Guide to Teachers” which dealt with teaching methods, the subjects taught, etc. Although her educational program was not entirely successful in reforming education, still around 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions near the end of her reign.
#6 CATHERINE II ESTABLISHED THE FIRST INSTITUTES FOR THE FORMAL EDUCATION OF FEMALES IN RUSSIA
Catherine the Great was responsible for an increased emphasis on education in Russia. A number of foundling hospitals, or boarding schools for orphaned and abandoned children, were established. The number of state and private schools were increased. The University of Moscow reached unprecedented heights and became an internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship. She founded the great Vospitatelnoi Dom, or House of Education, at Moscow and also at St. Petersburg. In 1764, Catherine II passed a decree to establish the famous Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. Smolny Institute was for girls of the nobility. The following year, she also established the Novodevichy Institute in Moscow for the daughters of commoners.
#7 SHE INTRODUCED A NUMBER OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS FOR EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE
Catherine II took a number of steps to make the administration of her vast empire more effective. In 1775, she decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire, which divided Russia into provinces and districts according to population statistics with each province consisting of roughly equal population. She gave each province an expanded administrative, police and judicial apparatus. It was put under the supervision of a governor, who acted in the name of the ruler and had direct communication with her. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts had been created; the government officials had nearly doubled; and spending on local governance had increased by as much six times. Catherine’s structure of local administration remained in force until the middle of the 19th century and served as a foundation for the local elected councils established in 1864.
#8 HER REIGN WAS A PERIOD OF EXPANSION OF TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
In 1785, Catherine issued the Charter to the Nobility, which freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. They were also to elect a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch. The same year, she also issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781; and the Police Ordinance of 1782. Apart from her administrative reforms, Catherine provided an environment where commodities were plentiful, trade expanded and communications developed. Large government spending led to shortage of silver and huge masses of copper coins in the Russian domestic market; making large transactions difficult. Thus, in 1769, Catherine II founded the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg to issue notes of 100, 75, 50, and 25 rubles upon payment of similar sums in copper money. These notes, known as Assignation rubles, were the first government paper money in Russia.
#9 SHE HELPED IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FREE ECONOMIC SOCIETY
In 1765, the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry was established in St Petersburg by a group of wealthy landowners led by Count Grigory Orlov. It was Russia’s first learned society; one of the first economic societies in the world; and, as it was independent of the government, it proved influential for Russian liberalism. Catherine II was instrumental in the establishment of the Free Economic Society and the mastermind behind its early activity. She endowed it with funds for a library and a building on Palace Square. Through it, she aimed to modernize the country’s agricultural system by incorporating latest techniques and achievements of Western agriculture. The leading economists of the time, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, were foreign members of the Free Economic Society.
#10 CATHERINE THE GREAT PLAYED A KEY ROLE IN THE RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT
Catherine II enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, a movement which dominated intellectual and philosophical thought in Europe during the 18th century. She corresponded with several leading philosophers of her time including Voltaire; and she herself wrote comedies, fiction and memoirs. She sponsored many cultural projects; and played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education in Russia. The Hermitage Museum, one of the largest and oldest museums in the world, began as a personal collection of Catherine II. It currently holds over three million items including the largest collection of paintings in the world. She also played a part in the formation of the renowned Bolshoi Theatre and the neighboring Maly Theatre. Catherine the Great presided over the period known as the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences; and had a significant and profound impact on Russian culture.
THE INSTRUCTION OF CATHERINE THE GREAT
Nakaz, or Instruction, of Catherine the Great was a document prepared by her as a guide for the All-Russian Legislative Commission of 1767 to consider internal reforms and to devise a new code of laws. The Instruction maintained that all men should be considered equal before the law; and that law should forbid only acts directly harmful to an individual or the community, leaving the people free to do anything not forbidden. It also disapproved of death penalty and torture. Catherine worked on the Instruction for two years and it consisted of 22 chapters and 655 articles. However, the Commission failed to prepare a new legal code and Catherine made no further efforts to implement her principles. Still the Instruction did raise some of the issues later adopted by the United States Constitution and it exerted considerable influence on the course of the Russian Enlightenment.
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This is a fact based documentary about Empress Catherine the Great. Russian Empress 1762-1796.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hDnPAN5mJQ
Images:
1. Coronation portrait of Catherine II by Stefano Torelli (1763-6, Russian museum)
2. Empress Catherine II visiting Mikhail Lomonosov by Ivan Fedorov
3. Map of the growth of the Russia Empire from 1558-1775
4. 2007 photo of the Moscow Orphanage or Foundling Home – A project conceived by Catherine the Great
Background from {[https://learnodo-newtonic.com/catherine-the-great-accomplishments}]
"10 MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA
By Anirudh
May 24, 2017
5417
Catherine II (1729 – 1796), known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of the Russian Empire for a period of 34 years from 1762 till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader in the history of Russia. She expanded her empire by conquest and diplomacy making it one of the leading powers in Europe. By the end of her reign, around 200,000 square miles had been added to the territory of the Russian Empire. Catherine II was an able governor and she introduced a number of educational and administrative reforms which had a lasting impact on her nation. She founded the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the renowned Hermitage Museum began as her personal collection. Catherine II also played a key role in encouraging the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences. She is considered one of the greatest monarchs of Russia and such was her impact that the period of her rule is known as the Catherinian Era. Here are the 10 major accomplishments of Catherine the Great.
#1 CATHERINE WAS THE LONGEST REIGNING FEMALE LEADER OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
On 21st August 1745, Catherine married Peter, the nephew and heir of Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the death of the Elizabeth in January 1762, Peter succeeded her as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. She overthrew her husband in a coup on July 8 of the same year and the following day, she declared herself Catherine II, the sovereign ruler of Russia. Her reign lasted for a period of 34 years, till her death in 1796, making her the longest-ruling female leader of Russia. She is also perhaps the most renowned empress of the Russian Empire and, due to her achievements, she is referred to as Catherine the Great. The period of her rule is called the Catherinian Era and is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire. Catherine the Great is regarded as one of the greatest Russian rulers.
#2 SHE SUCCESSFULLY LED RUSSIA AGAINST THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
In order to strengthen its power, it was necessary for Russia to have access to a major port. The Black Sea was however controlled by the Ottoman Empire, the largest and most influential Muslim empire in history. This situation led to the Russo-Turkish wars, a series of conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire from late 17th to early 19th century. Under Catherine the Great, Russia handed the Turks some of the heaviest defeats in their history during the 1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War. It was concluded with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, which gave Russia the right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea; granted it the territories at Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn; made Crimea a protectorate of Russia; and granted to Russia the position of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
#3 SHE MADE RUSSIA THE DOMINANT POWER IN SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE
In 1783, Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright and in 1787, the Ottomans restarted hostilities in the second major Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). This conflict proved to be as disastrous for the Turks as the first. Russia won a series of victories and ultimately the Ottomans were compelled to sign the Treaty of Jassy, which recognized Russian Empire’s annexation of the Crimea and granted it the Yedisan region, the territory between Dniester and Bug rivers. The Russian Empire thus now had control over the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast. Through her successful campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine the Great made Russia the dominant power in south-eastern Europe.
#4 CATHERINE II RAPIDLY EXPANDED THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE THROUGH CONQUEST AND DIPLOMACY
Apart from victories against the Ottoman Empire, Russia under Catherine II defeated the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth leading to the partitioning of Poland and division of its territory between Russia, Prussia and Austria with Russia gaining the largest share. It also started to colonize Alaska, establishing Russian America; and waged a war against Persia in 1796 making a significant advance into their territory but Catherine died the same year and her successor Paul I ordered the Russian troops to retreat. By the end of Catherine II’s reign, the Russian Empire had grown larger and stronger than ever before. It had expanded rapidly by conquest and diplomacy with around 200,000 square miles (518,000 square kilometers) being added to its territory. Catherine II thus established Russia as one of the great powers of Europe.
#5 SHE IMPLEMENTED A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMS TO IMPROVE EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Catherine II passed a series of important educational reforms. By 1782, she set up a commission to study the educational systems of many different countries. On 5 August 1786, the Russian Statute of National Education was put into effect. This established a two-tier network of high schools and primary schools which were free of charge, co-educational and open to all of the free classes (not serfs). It also regulated, in detail, the subjects to be taught at every age and the method of teaching. In addition to this, teachers were provided with the “Guide to Teachers” which dealt with teaching methods, the subjects taught, etc. Although her educational program was not entirely successful in reforming education, still around 62,000 pupils were being educated in some 549 state institutions near the end of her reign.
#6 CATHERINE II ESTABLISHED THE FIRST INSTITUTES FOR THE FORMAL EDUCATION OF FEMALES IN RUSSIA
Catherine the Great was responsible for an increased emphasis on education in Russia. A number of foundling hospitals, or boarding schools for orphaned and abandoned children, were established. The number of state and private schools were increased. The University of Moscow reached unprecedented heights and became an internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship. She founded the great Vospitatelnoi Dom, or House of Education, at Moscow and also at St. Petersburg. In 1764, Catherine II passed a decree to establish the famous Smolny Institute in St Petersburg, the first educational establishment for women in Russia and the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe. Smolny Institute was for girls of the nobility. The following year, she also established the Novodevichy Institute in Moscow for the daughters of commoners.
#7 SHE INTRODUCED A NUMBER OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS FOR EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE
Catherine II took a number of steps to make the administration of her vast empire more effective. In 1775, she decreed a Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire, which divided Russia into provinces and districts according to population statistics with each province consisting of roughly equal population. She gave each province an expanded administrative, police and judicial apparatus. It was put under the supervision of a governor, who acted in the name of the ruler and had direct communication with her. By the end of her reign, 50 provinces and nearly 500 districts had been created; the government officials had nearly doubled; and spending on local governance had increased by as much six times. Catherine’s structure of local administration remained in force until the middle of the 19th century and served as a foundation for the local elected councils established in 1864.
#8 HER REIGN WAS A PERIOD OF EXPANSION OF TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS
In 1785, Catherine issued the Charter to the Nobility, which freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. They were also to elect a Marshal of the Nobility, who spoke on their behalf to the monarch. The same year, she also issued the Charter of the Towns, which distributed all people into six groups as a way to limit the power of nobles and create a middle estate. Catherine also issued the Code of Commercial Navigation and Salt Trade Code of 1781; and the Police Ordinance of 1782. Apart from her administrative reforms, Catherine provided an environment where commodities were plentiful, trade expanded and communications developed. Large government spending led to shortage of silver and huge masses of copper coins in the Russian domestic market; making large transactions difficult. Thus, in 1769, Catherine II founded the Assignation Bank in St. Petersburg to issue notes of 100, 75, 50, and 25 rubles upon payment of similar sums in copper money. These notes, known as Assignation rubles, were the first government paper money in Russia.
#9 SHE HELPED IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FREE ECONOMIC SOCIETY
In 1765, the Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry was established in St Petersburg by a group of wealthy landowners led by Count Grigory Orlov. It was Russia’s first learned society; one of the first economic societies in the world; and, as it was independent of the government, it proved influential for Russian liberalism. Catherine II was instrumental in the establishment of the Free Economic Society and the mastermind behind its early activity. She endowed it with funds for a library and a building on Palace Square. Through it, she aimed to modernize the country’s agricultural system by incorporating latest techniques and achievements of Western agriculture. The leading economists of the time, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, were foreign members of the Free Economic Society.
#10 CATHERINE THE GREAT PLAYED A KEY ROLE IN THE RUSSIAN ENLIGHTENMENT
Catherine II enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, a movement which dominated intellectual and philosophical thought in Europe during the 18th century. She corresponded with several leading philosophers of her time including Voltaire; and she herself wrote comedies, fiction and memoirs. She sponsored many cultural projects; and played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education in Russia. The Hermitage Museum, one of the largest and oldest museums in the world, began as a personal collection of Catherine II. It currently holds over three million items including the largest collection of paintings in the world. She also played a part in the formation of the renowned Bolshoi Theatre and the neighboring Maly Theatre. Catherine the Great presided over the period known as the Russian Enlightenment, which saw the flowering of the arts and sciences; and had a significant and profound impact on Russian culture.
THE INSTRUCTION OF CATHERINE THE GREAT
Nakaz, or Instruction, of Catherine the Great was a document prepared by her as a guide for the All-Russian Legislative Commission of 1767 to consider internal reforms and to devise a new code of laws. The Instruction maintained that all men should be considered equal before the law; and that law should forbid only acts directly harmful to an individual or the community, leaving the people free to do anything not forbidden. It also disapproved of death penalty and torture. Catherine worked on the Instruction for two years and it consisted of 22 chapters and 655 articles. However, the Commission failed to prepare a new legal code and Catherine made no further efforts to implement her principles. Still the Instruction did raise some of the issues later adopted by the United States Constitution and it exerted considerable influence on the course of the Russian Enlightenment.
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The Russo-Turkish War - Naval Battle of Chesma
The naval Battle of Chesma took place on 5–7 July 1770 near and in Çeşme (Chesme or Chesma) Bay, in the area between the western tip of Anatolia and the isla...
The Russo-Turkish War - Naval Battle of Chesma
The naval Battle of Chesma took place on 5–7 July 1770 near and in Çeşme (Chesme or Chesma) Bay, in the area between the western tip of Anatolia and the island of Chios, which was the site of a number of past naval battles between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice. It was a part of the Orlov Revolt of 1769, a precursor to the later Greek War of Independence (1821–29), and the first of a number of disastrous fleet battles for the Ottomans against Russia.
The Russo-Turkish War had begun in 1768, and Russia sent several squadrons from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to draw Ottoman attention away from their Black Sea fleet, then only 6 battleships (ships of the line) strong. Two Russian squadrons, commanded by Admiral Grigory Spiridov and Rear Admiral John Elphinstone,[3] a British advisor, combined under the overall command of Count Alexei Orlov, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Fleet and went to look for the Ottoman fleet.
On 5 July 1770 they came across it anchored in line just north of Çeşme Bay, western Anatolia. Details of the Ottoman fleet are uncertain but it included 14–16 ships of the line including Real Mustafa of 84 guns, Rodos of 60 guns and a 100-gun flagship. In addition there were perhaps 6 frigates, 6 xebecs, 13 galleys and 32 small craft, with about 1,300 guns in total. About 10 of the ships of the line, of 70–100 guns, were in the Ottoman main line with a further 6 or so ships of the line in the 2nd, arranged so that they could fire through the gaps in the first line. Behind that were the frigates, xebecs etc. The fleet was commanded by Kapudan Pasha Mandalzade Hüsameddin, in the fourth ship from the front (north end) of the line, with Hasan Pasha in the first ship, Real Mustafa, and Cafer Bey in the seventh. Two further ships of the line, probably small, had left this fleet for Mytilene the previous evening.
After organizing a plan of attack, the Russian battle line (see Table 1) sailed towards the south end of the Ottoman line and then turned north, coming alongside the Ottomans, with the tail end coming into action last (Elphinston had wanted to approach the northern end first, then follow the wind along the Ottoman line, attacking their ships one by one – the method used by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile in 1798).
Battle
The Ottomans opened fire at about 11.45am, followed by the Russians slightly later. Three of the Russian ships of the line had trouble staying in position; Evropa turned around and came back behind Rostislav, Trech Svyatitelai circled the 2nd Ottoman vessel before coming back into the Russian line, being attacked in error by Trech Ierarchov as she did so, and Sv. Ianuarii turned around before coming back into the line.
Spiridov, in Sv. Evstafii, had a close-range battle with Hasan Pasha in Real Mustafa, before the latter was suddenly seen to be on fire. Her mainmast came down and landed on Sv. Evstafiis deck, causing the Russian ship to immediately blow up. Shortly later Real Mustafa blew up as well.
According to Elphinston, who claimed the Russians were almost useless, Spiridov and Count Feodor Orlov (brother of the commander), had left Sv. Evstafii before the fighting became close-range. Spiridov ended up on Tri Svyatitelya. Sv. Evstafii's captain, Kruse, survived too. At about 2pm the fighting ended, as the Ottomans cut their cables and moved south into the bay, forming themselves into a defensive line of 8 ships of the line, a 2nd line, and the rest beyond.
On 6 July the Russians bombarded the Ottoman ships and land positions, and at about 12:30 a.m. on the morning of 7 July Orlov sent Samuel Greig, (who transferred to Rostislav) to attack with Evropa, Rostislav and Ne tron menya forming a south-north line facing the Ottomans, and with Saratov in reserve, Nadezhda attacking the batteries at the eastern side of the bay entrance, Afrika attacking the batteries on the western side, and Grom near Afrika. At about 1:30 a.m. or earlier (times were about 90 minutes earlier, according to Elphinston), fire from Grom and/or Ne tron menya caused an Ottoman ship of the line to blow up after her main topsail caught fire, and the fire quickly spread to other ships of the line. By 2 a.m. two Ottoman ships of the line had blown up and more were on fire, and Greig sent in three fireships (the fourth, seeing the danger, stayed out), which contributed in a small way to the burning of almost the entire Ottoman fleet."
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LrvNf30omUc
Images
1. Apotheosis of the reign of Catherine II (fragment) by Gregorio Guglielmi
2. The destruction of the Turkish fleet by Russia in the Battle of Chesma, 1771
3. The Smolny Institute in Saint Petersburg
4. Catherine II walking in Tsarskoye Selo Park (with Chesma Column behind) by Vladimir Borovikovskiy
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The naval Battle of Chesma took place on 5–7 July 1770 near and in Çeşme (Chesme or Chesma) Bay, in the area between the western tip of Anatolia and the island of Chios, which was the site of a number of past naval battles between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice. It was a part of the Orlov Revolt of 1769, a precursor to the later Greek War of Independence (1821–29), and the first of a number of disastrous fleet battles for the Ottomans against Russia.
The Russo-Turkish War had begun in 1768, and Russia sent several squadrons from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to draw Ottoman attention away from their Black Sea fleet, then only 6 battleships (ships of the line) strong. Two Russian squadrons, commanded by Admiral Grigory Spiridov and Rear Admiral John Elphinstone,[3] a British advisor, combined under the overall command of Count Alexei Orlov, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Fleet and went to look for the Ottoman fleet.
On 5 July 1770 they came across it anchored in line just north of Çeşme Bay, western Anatolia. Details of the Ottoman fleet are uncertain but it included 14–16 ships of the line including Real Mustafa of 84 guns, Rodos of 60 guns and a 100-gun flagship. In addition there were perhaps 6 frigates, 6 xebecs, 13 galleys and 32 small craft, with about 1,300 guns in total. About 10 of the ships of the line, of 70–100 guns, were in the Ottoman main line with a further 6 or so ships of the line in the 2nd, arranged so that they could fire through the gaps in the first line. Behind that were the frigates, xebecs etc. The fleet was commanded by Kapudan Pasha Mandalzade Hüsameddin, in the fourth ship from the front (north end) of the line, with Hasan Pasha in the first ship, Real Mustafa, and Cafer Bey in the seventh. Two further ships of the line, probably small, had left this fleet for Mytilene the previous evening.
After organizing a plan of attack, the Russian battle line (see Table 1) sailed towards the south end of the Ottoman line and then turned north, coming alongside the Ottomans, with the tail end coming into action last (Elphinston had wanted to approach the northern end first, then follow the wind along the Ottoman line, attacking their ships one by one – the method used by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile in 1798).
Battle
The Ottomans opened fire at about 11.45am, followed by the Russians slightly later. Three of the Russian ships of the line had trouble staying in position; Evropa turned around and came back behind Rostislav, Trech Svyatitelai circled the 2nd Ottoman vessel before coming back into the Russian line, being attacked in error by Trech Ierarchov as she did so, and Sv. Ianuarii turned around before coming back into the line.
Spiridov, in Sv. Evstafii, had a close-range battle with Hasan Pasha in Real Mustafa, before the latter was suddenly seen to be on fire. Her mainmast came down and landed on Sv. Evstafiis deck, causing the Russian ship to immediately blow up. Shortly later Real Mustafa blew up as well.
According to Elphinston, who claimed the Russians were almost useless, Spiridov and Count Feodor Orlov (brother of the commander), had left Sv. Evstafii before the fighting became close-range. Spiridov ended up on Tri Svyatitelya. Sv. Evstafii's captain, Kruse, survived too. At about 2pm the fighting ended, as the Ottomans cut their cables and moved south into the bay, forming themselves into a defensive line of 8 ships of the line, a 2nd line, and the rest beyond.
On 6 July the Russians bombarded the Ottoman ships and land positions, and at about 12:30 a.m. on the morning of 7 July Orlov sent Samuel Greig, (who transferred to Rostislav) to attack with Evropa, Rostislav and Ne tron menya forming a south-north line facing the Ottomans, and with Saratov in reserve, Nadezhda attacking the batteries at the eastern side of the bay entrance, Afrika attacking the batteries on the western side, and Grom near Afrika. At about 1:30 a.m. or earlier (times were about 90 minutes earlier, according to Elphinston), fire from Grom and/or Ne tron menya caused an Ottoman ship of the line to blow up after her main topsail caught fire, and the fire quickly spread to other ships of the line. By 2 a.m. two Ottoman ships of the line had blown up and more were on fire, and Greig sent in three fireships (the fourth, seeing the danger, stayed out), which contributed in a small way to the burning of almost the entire Ottoman fleet."
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LrvNf30omUc
Images
1. Apotheosis of the reign of Catherine II (fragment) by Gregorio Guglielmi
2. The destruction of the Turkish fleet by Russia in the Battle of Chesma, 1771
3. The Smolny Institute in Saint Petersburg
4. Catherine II walking in Tsarskoye Selo Park (with Chesma Column behind) by Vladimir Borovikovskiy
FYI LCDR Clark PatonSSgt Brian Brakke SGT Brent ScottSGT Rick ColburnSgt Vance Bonds1SG James MatthewsLTC Stephan PorterCPT (Join to see)LCpl Donald FaucettCWO3 Dave AlcantaraSgt John H.PVT Mark Zehnercmsgt-rickey-denickeSGT (Join to see) SPC Douglas Bolton CPT Daniel CoxSFC David Reid, M.S, PHR, SHRM-CP, DTMSSG Michael NollSGT John MelvinSFC Richard Williamson
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