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On September 28, 48 BC, Pompey the Great was assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. From the article:
"Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a military leader and politician during the fall of the Roman Republic. He was born in 106 BCE and died on 28th September 48 BCE. His father was Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo.
Pompey’s life can be easily split into four phases: his early career (106- 71 BCE), his consulship until the triumvirate (70- 60 BCE), his later career in Rome (59- 50 BCE) and the Civil War (49-48 BCE).
Early Career
Pompey’s military career started in the Social Wars (91- 89 BCE) when he served under his father’s army at Asculum (89 BCE). In 83 BCE Pompey procured a private army of three legions, taken from his father’s veterans and clients, in order to fight for Sulla. After this Pompey was sent as pro praetor (a magistrate sent in place of a praetor) to Sicily and then Africa to put down dissidents. It was in 81 BCE that Sulla gave Pompey a triumph, on the 12th March, despite the fact that Pompey was still only an equites, and as such, not officially eligible for a triumph, it was also around this time that Pompey took the name Magnus, Great, which clearly echoed the great Macedonian general, Alexander the Great. After the death of his first wife Aemilia, Pompey married Sulla’s step daughter Mucia Tertia, which like most marriages of the time, was probably a political move. Despite this fact, Sulla still felt it necessary to remove Pompey from his will when in 78 BCE and he supported Lepidus for the consulship; it seems that by the next year Pompey had learnt his lesson, and instead supported Quintus Lutatius Catulus, this was also because Lepidus now spoke of revoking the Sullan laws. In 77 BCE Pompey was sent pro consule in order to assist in the struggle against Sertorius in Spain. Sertorius was an opponent of Sulla who had been active in that area since c. 83 BCE. Pompey returned from there in 71 BCE, wiping out the scattered bands of slaves who had fought under the now defeated Spartacus. In doing so, Pompey tried to take credit for ending the Slave War, when in fact it was Crassus who had been the main Roman protagonist in the war. As a result of Pompey’s victories he was granted his second triumph on the 29th December 71 BCE.
From Consul to the Triumvirate
Pompey, an experienced man by 70 BCE, was, however, illegible for the consulship since he was too young and had not held the positions of quaestor or praetor inline with the cursus honorum. Despite this, the rules were waived, and Pompey took the consulship for that year with Crassus. After his consulship Pompey did not take a province under his control, as was standard. Instead, the Gabinian Law of 67 BCE gave Pompey the power and authority to oppose and dispose of the increasing problem of piracy in the Mediterranean, which posed a threat to Rome’s grain supply.
[Q. Lutatius Catulus] speaking against the [Gabinian] law said in an informal harangue that Pompey was certainly an outstanding man, but that he was too eminent for comfort in a free res publica and that all power should not be placed in the hands of one man.
(Velleius II, 32, I)
Pompey successfully dealt with the Mediterranean pirates within three months.
Pompey successfully dealt with the pirates within his first three months of control, despite the fact that the Gabinian Law granted him command for three years, and in 66 BCE a further law was passed which gave him the command of the Roman army against Mithridates VI of Pontus. This law forms Cicero’s Pro lege Manilia, his first purely political speech which speaks in favour of the law, despite there being strong opposition towards the law from the optimate factions of Rome at the time. After defeating Mithridates VI, Pompey turned Bithynia, Pontus, and Syria into Roman provinces, paving the way for Rome’s later advances into the East. It was in 62 BCE that Pompey returned to Italy, and disbanded his army, finally entering Rome on his birthday, 30th September 61 BCE. Upon returning, Pompey celebrated a triumph the likes of which Rome had never seen before, one that lasted a whole two days!
He celebrated the triumph in honour of all his wars at once, including in it many trophies beautifully decked out to represent each of his achievements, even the smallest; and after them all came one huge one, decked out in costly fashion and bearing an inscription stating that it was a trophy of the inhabited world. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, 37.21.2)
He was awarded a triumph exceeding in brilliance any that had gone before… it occupied two successive days, and many nations were represented in the procession from Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Cilicia and all Syria, besides Albanians, Heniochi, Achaeans of Scythia, and Eastern Iberians. (Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 116)
Among these peoples no less than 1,000 strongholds had been captured, according to the inscriptions, and cities not much under 900 in number, besides 800 piratical ships, while 39 cities had been founded… but that which most enhanced his glory and had never been the lot of any roman before, was that he celebrated third triumph over the third continent. For others before had celebrated three triumphs; but he celebrated his first over Libya, his second over Europe, and this his last over Asia, so that he seemed in a way to have included the whole world in his three triumphs. (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 45.1-5)
However, not all was as Pompey had hoped for, the senate denied his proposals for land-grants for his disbanded army and they denied ratification of Pompey’s eastern settlements too; this decision was headed by Cato the Younger (the great grandson of Cato the Elder). Then, with Caesar’s return from Spain in 60 BCE, Pompey formed the first triumvirate (which in itself is a modern, rather than ancient term) with Caesar and Crassus, arguably the three most politically influential and powerful men in Rome (especially when their efforts were combined).
Later Career
In 59 BCE Caesar was appointed consul, with the support of Crassus and Pompey, which enabled Pompey to fulfil the land-grants to his veteran soldiers and to also have his settlement in the east ratified. One of the most obviously political motivated events of Pompey’s life was the divorce of his wife Marcia in order to marry Caesar’s daughter, Julia. However, despite the political motivation of this marriage, Pompey did come to love Julia, and this is mentioned by contemporaries. Despite Caesar putting in place what Pompey had wanted, and the political marriage, Pompey's success was beginning to decline and in 58/7 BCE he was attacked by Publius Clodius Pulcher. In 57 BCE Pompey both managed to secure Cicero’s return from exile and secured the control of Rome’s corn supply (a very important role, that lasted for five-years and granted him proconsular imperium and fifteen legates, but no army was provided). It is interesting to note Pompey’s sudden shift to matters public and civilian, considering that he was primarily a military man; however, what this might suggest is his logistical skills as a general had been transferred to the organisation of corn supplies. However, also in this year, Pompey failed to restore the father of Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy XII Auletes, to power in Egypt. Nevertheless, the triumvirate seemed to work both ways for Pompey, and in 55 BCE, after the three men’s agreement had been reaffirmed at Luca, both Pompey and Crassus were appointed consuls again. It is interesting to note, that despite being given the two Spanish provinces to govern over, Pompey chose to have them governed by legates, so that he could stay at Rome. What becomes apparent is the sheer wealth that Pompey’s campaigns had brought to him and Rome, and this is embodied with the creation of the Theatre of Pompey just outside Rome, at the Campus Martius, which was opened with extravagant games. The theatre itself also consisted of a Temple to Venus Victrix, and a statue of Pompey himself.
Inscriptions show that whereas in the past the proceeds to that state treasury from taxation were some 50,000,000 drachmae, Pompey’s additions to the empire were now bringing in 85,000,000; and that he was adding to the state treasury in coined money and gold and silver plate 20,000 talents, and this apart from the money he had given to his soldiers, each of whom had received at least 15,000 drachmae. (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 45.3-4)
However, the next two years saw tensions build within the triumvirate, firstly Pompey dropped out from any sort of further political marriage links with Julius Caesar after Julia died in childbirth in 54 BCE, and in 53 BCE Crassus was killed in Parthia, both of these events served to increase the tension between Caesar and Pompey that would eventually spark into Civil War. When Clodius was murdered in 62 BCE, Pompey was elected sole consul for the year, and was even backed by Cato. Pompey then went on to put Titus Annius Milo on trial and created new legislation with regards to violence, bribery, and the nature of magistracies. Whilst these actions would not have perhaps been seen favourably by Caesar; that is not to say that they were not directly enacted so as to do so. However, when Pompey increased his own imperium for another five years, he seismically affected the status quo. It was also around this time that Pompey married Cornelia, his political ally Quintus Caecilius Mettelus Piso Scipio’s daughter; again, as with Julia before her, whilst being a political marriage, it was by no means a loveless marriage. There were calls for Pompey to recall Caesar, and this led to Gaius Scribonius Curio in 50 BCE calling for either both of the men, or neither of them, to put aside their command. Cicero sums up the situation succinctly:
It is a struggle between two kings, in which defeat has overtaken the more moderate king [Pompey], the one who is more upright and honest, the one whose failure means that the very name of the Roman people must be wiped out, though if he wins the victory, he will use it after the manner and example of Sulla. (Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 10.7.1)
Civil War
Pompey was unable to come to terms with this situation and took over the command of the Republic’s armies in Italy in 49 BCE, the year that Caesar crossed the Rubicon and uttered the famous words, alea iacta est (the dice are thrown). He then moved the army from Brundisium to Macedonia, where he mobilised his forces. In 48 BCE Caesar arrived, and, knowing that Caesar’s force was greater than his, Pompey retreated when Caesar tried to blockade him in Dryrrachium. The passage below from Plutarch helps to make sense of this, whilst Caesar already had an experienced, battle-hardened army, Pompey had to mobilise one from scratch, one that would be less experienced than Caesar’s:
When some said that if Caesar should march upon Rome, they did not see any forces with which to defend it from him, with a smiling face and calm manner Pompey told them not to fear: “For,” he said, “in whatever part of Italy I stamp upon the ground, there will spring up armies of infantry and cavalry.” (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 57.5)
On the 9th August (the reason why he was persuaded to do so is unclear) Pompey met Caesar in pitched battle at Pharsalus in Thessaly and suffered terrible losses and a cruel defeat. Caesar had become a formidable general, having gained much valuable experience from his campaigns in Gaul. Pompey then fled to Egypt, but was stabbed to death as he disembarked at Alexandria on the 28th September 48 BCE. With the defeat of Pompey and the victory of Julius Caesar, the foundations of Imperial Rome were dug and any sentiment of a ‘democratic’ Rome was buried with it.
Sincere belief in Rome’s freedom died long ago, when Marius and Sulla were admitted within the walls; but now, when Pompey has been removed from the world, even the sham belief is dead.
(M. Annaeus Lucanus, On the Civil War, 9.204-6)
Pompey’s career was to some extent typical of a new type of Roman statesman that came to the fore in the late Republic, that of the ‘military dynast’, which could be seen to have had its origins in the careers of Marius and Sulla. However, in the end, Pompey tends to be seen by history as one of the great losers, which tends not to give true credit to his earlier career and what he achieved during it."
"Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, also known as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a military leader and politician during the fall of the Roman Republic. He was born in 106 BCE and died on 28th September 48 BCE. His father was Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo.
Pompey’s life can be easily split into four phases: his early career (106- 71 BCE), his consulship until the triumvirate (70- 60 BCE), his later career in Rome (59- 50 BCE) and the Civil War (49-48 BCE).
Early Career
Pompey’s military career started in the Social Wars (91- 89 BCE) when he served under his father’s army at Asculum (89 BCE). In 83 BCE Pompey procured a private army of three legions, taken from his father’s veterans and clients, in order to fight for Sulla. After this Pompey was sent as pro praetor (a magistrate sent in place of a praetor) to Sicily and then Africa to put down dissidents. It was in 81 BCE that Sulla gave Pompey a triumph, on the 12th March, despite the fact that Pompey was still only an equites, and as such, not officially eligible for a triumph, it was also around this time that Pompey took the name Magnus, Great, which clearly echoed the great Macedonian general, Alexander the Great. After the death of his first wife Aemilia, Pompey married Sulla’s step daughter Mucia Tertia, which like most marriages of the time, was probably a political move. Despite this fact, Sulla still felt it necessary to remove Pompey from his will when in 78 BCE and he supported Lepidus for the consulship; it seems that by the next year Pompey had learnt his lesson, and instead supported Quintus Lutatius Catulus, this was also because Lepidus now spoke of revoking the Sullan laws. In 77 BCE Pompey was sent pro consule in order to assist in the struggle against Sertorius in Spain. Sertorius was an opponent of Sulla who had been active in that area since c. 83 BCE. Pompey returned from there in 71 BCE, wiping out the scattered bands of slaves who had fought under the now defeated Spartacus. In doing so, Pompey tried to take credit for ending the Slave War, when in fact it was Crassus who had been the main Roman protagonist in the war. As a result of Pompey’s victories he was granted his second triumph on the 29th December 71 BCE.
From Consul to the Triumvirate
Pompey, an experienced man by 70 BCE, was, however, illegible for the consulship since he was too young and had not held the positions of quaestor or praetor inline with the cursus honorum. Despite this, the rules were waived, and Pompey took the consulship for that year with Crassus. After his consulship Pompey did not take a province under his control, as was standard. Instead, the Gabinian Law of 67 BCE gave Pompey the power and authority to oppose and dispose of the increasing problem of piracy in the Mediterranean, which posed a threat to Rome’s grain supply.
[Q. Lutatius Catulus] speaking against the [Gabinian] law said in an informal harangue that Pompey was certainly an outstanding man, but that he was too eminent for comfort in a free res publica and that all power should not be placed in the hands of one man.
(Velleius II, 32, I)
Pompey successfully dealt with the Mediterranean pirates within three months.
Pompey successfully dealt with the pirates within his first three months of control, despite the fact that the Gabinian Law granted him command for three years, and in 66 BCE a further law was passed which gave him the command of the Roman army against Mithridates VI of Pontus. This law forms Cicero’s Pro lege Manilia, his first purely political speech which speaks in favour of the law, despite there being strong opposition towards the law from the optimate factions of Rome at the time. After defeating Mithridates VI, Pompey turned Bithynia, Pontus, and Syria into Roman provinces, paving the way for Rome’s later advances into the East. It was in 62 BCE that Pompey returned to Italy, and disbanded his army, finally entering Rome on his birthday, 30th September 61 BCE. Upon returning, Pompey celebrated a triumph the likes of which Rome had never seen before, one that lasted a whole two days!
He celebrated the triumph in honour of all his wars at once, including in it many trophies beautifully decked out to represent each of his achievements, even the smallest; and after them all came one huge one, decked out in costly fashion and bearing an inscription stating that it was a trophy of the inhabited world. (Cassius Dio, Roman History, 37.21.2)
He was awarded a triumph exceeding in brilliance any that had gone before… it occupied two successive days, and many nations were represented in the procession from Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Cilicia and all Syria, besides Albanians, Heniochi, Achaeans of Scythia, and Eastern Iberians. (Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 116)
Among these peoples no less than 1,000 strongholds had been captured, according to the inscriptions, and cities not much under 900 in number, besides 800 piratical ships, while 39 cities had been founded… but that which most enhanced his glory and had never been the lot of any roman before, was that he celebrated third triumph over the third continent. For others before had celebrated three triumphs; but he celebrated his first over Libya, his second over Europe, and this his last over Asia, so that he seemed in a way to have included the whole world in his three triumphs. (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 45.1-5)
However, not all was as Pompey had hoped for, the senate denied his proposals for land-grants for his disbanded army and they denied ratification of Pompey’s eastern settlements too; this decision was headed by Cato the Younger (the great grandson of Cato the Elder). Then, with Caesar’s return from Spain in 60 BCE, Pompey formed the first triumvirate (which in itself is a modern, rather than ancient term) with Caesar and Crassus, arguably the three most politically influential and powerful men in Rome (especially when their efforts were combined).
Later Career
In 59 BCE Caesar was appointed consul, with the support of Crassus and Pompey, which enabled Pompey to fulfil the land-grants to his veteran soldiers and to also have his settlement in the east ratified. One of the most obviously political motivated events of Pompey’s life was the divorce of his wife Marcia in order to marry Caesar’s daughter, Julia. However, despite the political motivation of this marriage, Pompey did come to love Julia, and this is mentioned by contemporaries. Despite Caesar putting in place what Pompey had wanted, and the political marriage, Pompey's success was beginning to decline and in 58/7 BCE he was attacked by Publius Clodius Pulcher. In 57 BCE Pompey both managed to secure Cicero’s return from exile and secured the control of Rome’s corn supply (a very important role, that lasted for five-years and granted him proconsular imperium and fifteen legates, but no army was provided). It is interesting to note Pompey’s sudden shift to matters public and civilian, considering that he was primarily a military man; however, what this might suggest is his logistical skills as a general had been transferred to the organisation of corn supplies. However, also in this year, Pompey failed to restore the father of Cleopatra VII, Ptolemy XII Auletes, to power in Egypt. Nevertheless, the triumvirate seemed to work both ways for Pompey, and in 55 BCE, after the three men’s agreement had been reaffirmed at Luca, both Pompey and Crassus were appointed consuls again. It is interesting to note, that despite being given the two Spanish provinces to govern over, Pompey chose to have them governed by legates, so that he could stay at Rome. What becomes apparent is the sheer wealth that Pompey’s campaigns had brought to him and Rome, and this is embodied with the creation of the Theatre of Pompey just outside Rome, at the Campus Martius, which was opened with extravagant games. The theatre itself also consisted of a Temple to Venus Victrix, and a statue of Pompey himself.
Inscriptions show that whereas in the past the proceeds to that state treasury from taxation were some 50,000,000 drachmae, Pompey’s additions to the empire were now bringing in 85,000,000; and that he was adding to the state treasury in coined money and gold and silver plate 20,000 talents, and this apart from the money he had given to his soldiers, each of whom had received at least 15,000 drachmae. (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 45.3-4)
However, the next two years saw tensions build within the triumvirate, firstly Pompey dropped out from any sort of further political marriage links with Julius Caesar after Julia died in childbirth in 54 BCE, and in 53 BCE Crassus was killed in Parthia, both of these events served to increase the tension between Caesar and Pompey that would eventually spark into Civil War. When Clodius was murdered in 62 BCE, Pompey was elected sole consul for the year, and was even backed by Cato. Pompey then went on to put Titus Annius Milo on trial and created new legislation with regards to violence, bribery, and the nature of magistracies. Whilst these actions would not have perhaps been seen favourably by Caesar; that is not to say that they were not directly enacted so as to do so. However, when Pompey increased his own imperium for another five years, he seismically affected the status quo. It was also around this time that Pompey married Cornelia, his political ally Quintus Caecilius Mettelus Piso Scipio’s daughter; again, as with Julia before her, whilst being a political marriage, it was by no means a loveless marriage. There were calls for Pompey to recall Caesar, and this led to Gaius Scribonius Curio in 50 BCE calling for either both of the men, or neither of them, to put aside their command. Cicero sums up the situation succinctly:
It is a struggle between two kings, in which defeat has overtaken the more moderate king [Pompey], the one who is more upright and honest, the one whose failure means that the very name of the Roman people must be wiped out, though if he wins the victory, he will use it after the manner and example of Sulla. (Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 10.7.1)
Civil War
Pompey was unable to come to terms with this situation and took over the command of the Republic’s armies in Italy in 49 BCE, the year that Caesar crossed the Rubicon and uttered the famous words, alea iacta est (the dice are thrown). He then moved the army from Brundisium to Macedonia, where he mobilised his forces. In 48 BCE Caesar arrived, and, knowing that Caesar’s force was greater than his, Pompey retreated when Caesar tried to blockade him in Dryrrachium. The passage below from Plutarch helps to make sense of this, whilst Caesar already had an experienced, battle-hardened army, Pompey had to mobilise one from scratch, one that would be less experienced than Caesar’s:
When some said that if Caesar should march upon Rome, they did not see any forces with which to defend it from him, with a smiling face and calm manner Pompey told them not to fear: “For,” he said, “in whatever part of Italy I stamp upon the ground, there will spring up armies of infantry and cavalry.” (Plutarch, Life of Pompey the Great, 57.5)
On the 9th August (the reason why he was persuaded to do so is unclear) Pompey met Caesar in pitched battle at Pharsalus in Thessaly and suffered terrible losses and a cruel defeat. Caesar had become a formidable general, having gained much valuable experience from his campaigns in Gaul. Pompey then fled to Egypt, but was stabbed to death as he disembarked at Alexandria on the 28th September 48 BCE. With the defeat of Pompey and the victory of Julius Caesar, the foundations of Imperial Rome were dug and any sentiment of a ‘democratic’ Rome was buried with it.
Sincere belief in Rome’s freedom died long ago, when Marius and Sulla were admitted within the walls; but now, when Pompey has been removed from the world, even the sham belief is dead.
(M. Annaeus Lucanus, On the Civil War, 9.204-6)
Pompey’s career was to some extent typical of a new type of Roman statesman that came to the fore in the late Republic, that of the ‘military dynast’, which could be seen to have had its origins in the careers of Marius and Sulla. However, in the end, Pompey tends to be seen by history as one of the great losers, which tends not to give true credit to his earlier career and what he achieved during it."
Pompey
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In this video, I look at how Pompey earned his cognomen and became one of the greatest men in Roman history. In the near future, I hope to release more video...
Thank you my friend SGT (Join to see) for reminding us that on September 28, 48 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus known as Pompey the Great was assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt.
How Pompey Became Great
Thersites the Historian: how Pompey earned his cognomen and became one of the greatest men in Roman history.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4rh5cH5m0Sc
Images:
1. Pompey the Great statue head
2. A coin depicting Roman general and statesman Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Pompey the Great. The reverse side shows Neptune. (c. 40 BCE)
3. Pompey the Great 'Stop quoting laws, we carry weapons.'
4. Pompey the Great sketch
Background from {[https://sites.psu.edu/firsttriumvirate/pompey//]}
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
Pompey was born on September 29, 106 BCE, into wealth and politics and war. His father, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, was an affluent landowning Italian from Picenum, one of the homines novi (new men). His father went from being a quaestor to a praetor and eventually a consul. He was known for being greedy, being deceitful with politics, and military mercilessness. He died during the Marian siege against Rome in 87 BCE. Pompey, at 20 years old, inherited his lands, his politics and the devotion of his legions.
Although Pompey was fluent in Greek and had received a solid education as a young nobleman, he learned the most from his father. Pompey served two years underneath his father’s military command, and took part in the concluding acts of the Marsic Social War against the Italians. When Pompey returned to Rome he faced prosecution for unlawfully plundering. Luckily for Pompey, his relations with the judge’s daughter, Antistia, brought about a quick discharge.
The Marians controlled Italy for the next couple years until Sulla returned after his campaign against Mithridates in 83 BCE. Pompey then assembled three Picenean legions to fight the Marian regime of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo. After Sulla defeated the Marians, he became dictator of Rome, and who better to have supporting you for Pompey then his own dictator. Sulla was impressed by Pompey’s military abilities and performance, especially his self-confidence. Pompey was soon after promoted or known as “Imperator” which is a close synonym to commander under the Roman Republic.Sula was so infatuated with Pompey and his potential that he even offered him his already married and pregnant stepdaughter, Aemilia Scaura, in marriage. Pompey and Aemilia both divorced their husband and wife and started a new life together. Unfortunately, soon after Aemilia died in childbirth. Although the marriage was short-lived, it had still confirmed Pompey’s devotion and significantly furthered his career.
The senate then gave Pompey the task of reclaiming Sicily and Africa from the Marians under Sulla’s order. Pompey finished the job in two different fast but efficient campaigns (82-81). Pompey did as his father would, like he learned, and executed the Marian leaders who surrendered to him mercilessly. Although Pompeys actions could be considered barbaric, they were effective, instilling fear in his enemies. He became known as Sulla’s butcher, but to his own men he was “Magnus” and “imperator”. He had both his enemies and his own men in the best mental states for his own prosperity. This may have gotten to his head, leading him to demand his own dictator Sulla to have a triumph for him when he returned. Sulla refused his request so in turn Pompey refused to disband his army and showed up at the gates of Rome, commanding Sulla to oblige to his demands. Sulla gave in, and after he had his own triumph, granted Metellus Pius his triumph, then fulfilled Pompey’s request and allowed him to have one of his own.
The career of Pompey seemed to be compelled by the aspiration of military glory and neglect of the customary political restraints. In 78 BCE he supported Lepidus, opposing Sulla’s request, in the elections of consular. After Sulla died in 78 BCE, Lepidus revolted, but was repressed by Pompey as requested by the Senate. After obliging with the senates wishes Pompey requested to be the proconsular imperium in Spain to fight the pupulares general Quintus Sertorius. Sertorius had kept his own the previous three years while taking on Metellus Pius, who had been one of Sulla’s best generals. When he was denied his request he resorted to his fighting ways and once again refused to release his army until they changed their minds and approved his request.
Pompey now had power equal to Metellus and ventured to Spain. He fought there from 76 BCE to 71 BCE. Because of Sertorius’s guerilla warfare tactics, unlike Rome’s traditional style of fighting, it took Pompey a long time to begin winning. Eventually Pompey started winning in a war of attrition against Sertorius’s junior officers and after him and Metellus starting taking city by city. Finally, after Sertorius was killed by his very own officer, Marcus Perperna Vento, Pompey crushed him in their first battle and the war ended soon after.
Meanwhile in Rome, Pompey was the people’s champion. He had another triumph after his victory in Spain. Many of his fans thoroughly believe he was the best general of their time, with the gods in his favor. And with the defeat of Sulla and his supporters the plebian’s may regain their deserved civil rights and constitutional privileges that were vacant during Sulla’s reign Because of this He was able to once again circumvent yet another Roman custom and at the age of only 35 he became a Consul without even being a senator, with the result of a vast majority vote. He became Crassus partner serving in 70 BCE.
Two years passed his consulship, Pompey was given and offer to lead a naval force to clear out the pirates in the Mediterranean Sea which was becoming increasingly problematic. There was more opposition then support in Pompey’s favor for this action but with the backing of the Plebians and their Tribune, Aulus Gabinius, he was granted a Lex Gabinia which gave him absolute control of the Mediterranean and in the coastline as far as 50 miles inland. In significantly less time than he was given to complete this task, the Sea was cleared of pirates and communication and trade throughout the Mediterranean was restored. Once again Pompey was a hero in Rome.
Pompey was still in the east resettling pirates as peaceful farmers, while in Rome a new Tribune, Gaius Manilius, inacted a bill assigning Pompey to the command against Mithradates, with full powers to make war and peace and to organize the whole Roman East. Pompey defeated Mithradates in Asia Minor with relative ease. After the death of Mithradates in 63 BCE, Pompey was then free to plan the consolidation of the eastern provinces and frontier kingdoms. The re-organization of the East is if not the greatest, one of the greatest of Pompey’s achievement. His comprehensive appreciation of the geographical and political aspects involved allowed him to execute a general settlement that was to form the foundation of the defensive frontier system and was to endure, with few significant changes, for over 500 years.
Pompey was at his best with all of his influence and respect in 62 BCE when he finally dismissed his army and had his third triumph. For the next decade he reigned supreme until Caesar’s growing military, along with most of the nobles who were never fully behind him, started getting in the way. This led to the first triumvirate. The first triumvirate was an informal alliance between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. This was to benefit all of them with their desired political careers. Pompey, who was now married to Caesar’s daughter, Julia, saw Caesar as his necessary instrument. The three of them protected their ends by violence and corruption after a prolonged struggle. Early in 55 Pompey and Crassus were at last elected consuls. Nonetheless the triumvirate was approaching the end. The death of Julia shattered the strongest bond between Pompey and Caesar, and Crassus suffered a terrible defeat and died in Mesopotamia. The triumvirate was no more.
Pompey watched the lawlessness and disorder in the city becoming day-to-day and more unbearable. He was ready to wait without obliging himself up until the inner circle of nobles, who once never wanted Pompey to get what he wanted, realized an alliance with him was inevitable. He rejected all proposals from Caesar for an alliance. Without any senior magistrates in office, Pompey was called upon to reestablish order. Quickly, Pompey called upon his troops from Italy. Although it was a case that would usually call for making Pompey dictator, it was thought by them to be safer to make him sole consul.
At first, Pompey boasted he could beat Caesar but Caesars growing legions caused Pompey to leave Rome and head east eventually ending in Egypt. While waiting for refuge in Egypt, Caesar was on his way, causing the consular of King Ptomely XIII to debate whether it was smart or not to let Pompey in.Pompey boarded a small boat and sailed to the coast to talk with the hosts of Egypt where there appeared to be a welcoming party. When Pompey arrived he was stabbed to death by his betrayers, Suptimius, Salvius, and Achillas on September 28th 48 BCE.
Pompey’s legacy cast a lasting shadow. A militant champion, that fell short just before real greatness. The Republican hero, who at one point appeared to control all of Rome and its empire in the palm of his hand. His down fall besides Caesar of course, was his own poor judgment and desires. By ending his life in a murder he became a tragic hero. Some called him The Roman Alexander the Great, with a good head and heart, but devastated by the contemptuous ambitions of his fellow Romans.
The Formation of the First Triumvirate.
The First Triumvirate was formed with the intentions of putting the three most powerful men under one banner to effectively bypass any opposition they would encounter on the way to further their goals. The alliance was by no means a peaceful and or uneasy one at any point through its brief time. There were many ups and downs which would eventually tear the alliance apart. However, every story has a beginning, and the beginning of the Triumvirate is all about reducing the headache that the Roman Senate was causing these three men. Pompey’s problem was directly linked to the Senate itself. He had recently returned to Rome from fighting Mithridates, the king of Pontus, in the year 62 BCE (Zoch 175). The Senate had great fear that Pompey would return to Rome with his army like Sulla had done previously. He did no such thing however, he peacefully disbanded his army and walked into Rome as a private Roman citizen (Zoch 176). He had a triumph held for two days and asked two things of the Senate to approve. The first request being his men given land and the second that the Senate ratify his settlement of the east. These were not radical requests by any means to be asked for, but Pompey had made an enemy, Lucius Licinius Lucullus. Lucullus currently a Tribune, led the Senate in an effort to reject both of Pompey’s requests; which he was successful in doing (Zoch 176).
Crassus’ struggle was with the Asian tax, which led him to be invited to the Triumvirate by Caesar (Marin 113). Also being the richest man in Rome played very favorably for him to be invited into this exclusive club. Crassus’ wealth was so immense that he said that “a man was not truly wealthy unless he could support an army of forty thousand from his own funds.” (Zoch 176) Having Crassus as an ally in the Triumvirate would be beneficial to both Pompey and Caesar due to his powerful sway from his wealth he acquired over the years. Another reason Crassus was involved was due to the fact that he sponsored Caesar in becoming Pontifex Maximus (Marin 113).
The final link in the Triumvirate would is Gaius Julius Caesar. His goals was a simple one: to gain as much power as possible. Following that goal, he wished to stand for the consulship and also hold a triumph in the year 59 BCE . The Senate denied his request to stand for the candidacy in absentia, or being absent, a tradition which has long been held that anyone running for public office must stand for that office in person at Rome (Marin 114). Faced with a choice of either having to abandon the consulship or his triumph, he chose the latter and decided to stand for consul (Marin 114). But before he would go about standing for the consulship, due to the fact that he knew he would face much opposition, he gathered Pompey and Crassus to form the First Triumvirate in the year 60 BCE, which Caesar knew would secure himself a victory because of the amount of pull both of those men had within Rome (Zoch 176). With that, Caesar could then use his consul powers to then secure Pompey’s two requests and mainly to appease both of the men he now called allies (Zoch 114). This is the beginning of what we call the First Triumvirate, as well as the visible downfall of the Republican Rome.
The Problems and Reconciliations of the First Triumvirate.
The First Triumvirate had its fair share of problems throughout its life. An inevitable issue that the Triumvirate would have to come to terms with is the Senate by in large finding it very suspicious that the three most powerful men in Rome seem to be collaborating. Pompey was affected by this suspicion greatly because he greatly adored having the peoples love on his side (Zoch 184). Pompey also found much ridicule from the people because of his new bride Julia, the daughter of Julius Caesar. He fell madly in love with her and the people used this as ammunition to ridicule him whenever possible (Marin 116). Caesar also felt the effects of unpopularity. His is due in part to his alliance with the other two as well as his harsh use of the consul position. Caesar himself unused to unpopularity is stuck in a pickle because if he retreats it is a sign of weakness and to try and advance himself can have serious repercussions (Marin 118). Caesar was fortunate to escape his unpopularity with his campaign in Gaul in the year 59 BCE (Zoch 180). His swift leaving of his consul position for his proconsul position in Gaul sparked much concern that Caesar was afraid of retribution for his complete disregard for tradition (Marin 119).
Meanwhile Publius Clodius Pulcher, a shrewd tribune was elected in the 58 BCE. and passed numerous laws that increased his power and popularity with the plebs in Rome (Zoch 181). One of these laws had Cicero, a popular figure in Rome at the time exiled, because Clodius had a personal vendetta against Cicero for speaking out against Clodius at his trial of the Bona Dea scandal. Clodius did not stop his attacks with Cicero though. He went on to attack Pompey multiple times. On one occasion Clodius had his goons openly insult Pompey at the forum and one of Clodius’ slaves attempted to assassinate Pompey (Zoch 182). Because of this Pompey quit public life and went into retirement in which he spent much of his time with his wife Julia. Eventually Pompey needed Cicero back and knew he could win his gratitude by securing his return from exile. Pompey managed to secure Cicero’s return by creating his own group of goons under Titus Annius Milo. The year 57 BCE seen the return of Cicero to the public eye in Rome and repaid Pompey kindly by giving him the position of dictator of the grain supply (Zoch 184). This action would return Pompey as a reputable man and caused tension within the Triumvirate.
In the year 55 BCE Crassus and Pompey were to stand for re-election for the consul position. They succeeded in attaining this position and used it to grant themselves, and Caesar, five year proconsular commands in Spain for Pompey, Gaul for Caesar, and Syria for Crassus (Zoch 184). This deal to grant themselves each five year consulships was known as the Conference at Luca, which took place in the year 56 BCE in the town of Luca (Zoch 184). Caesar comes under serious fire by Cato and Favonius for asking for an extension of his proconsulship in Gaul because he is seen as the radical among the three. The two men, Cato and Favonius, attack the Triumvirate, especially Caesar, because of these five year extensions (Marin 133). A poet, Catullus, even writes a poem about Caesar and openly shows how much he despises Caesar (Marin 133). What this shows is that Caesar is still very unpopular with the Roman people and the senate, and different types of hate are used against Caesar, not limited to, but including “adultery, homosexuality, greed and stupidity” (Marin 134). Pompey again is still riding a wave of popularity from his position as grain dictator and is seen among the Senate, especially Cato, that Pompey is the weak link in the Triumvirate (Marin 143). Pompey will eventually become a pawn of the Senate in the year 49 BCE when the Roman world enters civil war.
The Downfall of The First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate saw its end with the deaths of both Crassus and Julia. Julia was the only bond holding Pompey and Caesar together, with her death there was virtually nothing keeping these two men from an inevitable fight. Her death in the year 54 BCE, during childbirth, as well as her baby a few days later, signaled the end of the Triumvirate (Marin 137). What truly broke the Triumvirate apart was when Crassus was killed on the field of battle against the Parthian general Surenas in the year 53 BCE. Crassus found his forces divided and the Parthian army massacring all of his forces. Crassus’ death in the year 53 BCE made the Triumvirate no more since there was only two left. With neither Julia nor Crassus in the picture it only left Caesar and Pompey making up the Triumvirate (Marin 139).
The final knife in the Triumvirate was when Caesar and Pompey were enemies on the battlefield when the civil war started in the year 49 BCE on January, 10. Pompey fighting on the side of the Republic, and Caesar on the side of the Empire essentially (Marin 154-155). Pompey did not stay in Rome when the civil war started. He took his leave to the east, where he had made many friends and allies. He chose Egypt as his destination, excepting to find safe haven within under the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy Auletes (Zoch 200). To Pompey’s misfortune, he was murdered by the kings ministers, the kings advisor is to have said “a corpse doesn’t bite.” (Zoch 201) They beheaded Pompey and took his signet ring which they presented to Caesar on his arrival to Egypt. Caesar wept at the death of Pompey and had his murders found and killed because of the dishonor that they bestowed upon Pompey by killing him in such a fashion (Zoch 201). Though the Triumvirate died with the death of Crassus in 53 BCE, the death of Pompey in the year 48 BCE left Caesar the only player of the Triumvirate, and the strongest man in Rome unopposed by anyone."
FYI COL Mikel J. Burroughs LTC (Join to see) MAJ Dale E. Wilson, Ph.D. Maj Bill Smith, Ph.D. Maj William W. 'Bill' Price MSG Felipe De Leon Brown SMSgt Lawrence McCarter GySgt Thomas Vick MSgt Robert "Rock" Aldi SSG Stephen Rogerson SSG Chad Henning SPC Chris HallgrimsonMSG Glen MillerPO3 Phyllis MaynardSSG Samuel KermonSP5 Geoffrey VannersonPO2 (Join to see)Cpl (Join to see) CPL Dave Hoover
How Pompey Became Great
Thersites the Historian: how Pompey earned his cognomen and became one of the greatest men in Roman history.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4rh5cH5m0Sc
Images:
1. Pompey the Great statue head
2. A coin depicting Roman general and statesman Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Pompey the Great. The reverse side shows Neptune. (c. 40 BCE)
3. Pompey the Great 'Stop quoting laws, we carry weapons.'
4. Pompey the Great sketch
Background from {[https://sites.psu.edu/firsttriumvirate/pompey//]}
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
Pompey was born on September 29, 106 BCE, into wealth and politics and war. His father, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, was an affluent landowning Italian from Picenum, one of the homines novi (new men). His father went from being a quaestor to a praetor and eventually a consul. He was known for being greedy, being deceitful with politics, and military mercilessness. He died during the Marian siege against Rome in 87 BCE. Pompey, at 20 years old, inherited his lands, his politics and the devotion of his legions.
Although Pompey was fluent in Greek and had received a solid education as a young nobleman, he learned the most from his father. Pompey served two years underneath his father’s military command, and took part in the concluding acts of the Marsic Social War against the Italians. When Pompey returned to Rome he faced prosecution for unlawfully plundering. Luckily for Pompey, his relations with the judge’s daughter, Antistia, brought about a quick discharge.
The Marians controlled Italy for the next couple years until Sulla returned after his campaign against Mithridates in 83 BCE. Pompey then assembled three Picenean legions to fight the Marian regime of Gnaeus Papirius Carbo. After Sulla defeated the Marians, he became dictator of Rome, and who better to have supporting you for Pompey then his own dictator. Sulla was impressed by Pompey’s military abilities and performance, especially his self-confidence. Pompey was soon after promoted or known as “Imperator” which is a close synonym to commander under the Roman Republic.Sula was so infatuated with Pompey and his potential that he even offered him his already married and pregnant stepdaughter, Aemilia Scaura, in marriage. Pompey and Aemilia both divorced their husband and wife and started a new life together. Unfortunately, soon after Aemilia died in childbirth. Although the marriage was short-lived, it had still confirmed Pompey’s devotion and significantly furthered his career.
The senate then gave Pompey the task of reclaiming Sicily and Africa from the Marians under Sulla’s order. Pompey finished the job in two different fast but efficient campaigns (82-81). Pompey did as his father would, like he learned, and executed the Marian leaders who surrendered to him mercilessly. Although Pompeys actions could be considered barbaric, they were effective, instilling fear in his enemies. He became known as Sulla’s butcher, but to his own men he was “Magnus” and “imperator”. He had both his enemies and his own men in the best mental states for his own prosperity. This may have gotten to his head, leading him to demand his own dictator Sulla to have a triumph for him when he returned. Sulla refused his request so in turn Pompey refused to disband his army and showed up at the gates of Rome, commanding Sulla to oblige to his demands. Sulla gave in, and after he had his own triumph, granted Metellus Pius his triumph, then fulfilled Pompey’s request and allowed him to have one of his own.
The career of Pompey seemed to be compelled by the aspiration of military glory and neglect of the customary political restraints. In 78 BCE he supported Lepidus, opposing Sulla’s request, in the elections of consular. After Sulla died in 78 BCE, Lepidus revolted, but was repressed by Pompey as requested by the Senate. After obliging with the senates wishes Pompey requested to be the proconsular imperium in Spain to fight the pupulares general Quintus Sertorius. Sertorius had kept his own the previous three years while taking on Metellus Pius, who had been one of Sulla’s best generals. When he was denied his request he resorted to his fighting ways and once again refused to release his army until they changed their minds and approved his request.
Pompey now had power equal to Metellus and ventured to Spain. He fought there from 76 BCE to 71 BCE. Because of Sertorius’s guerilla warfare tactics, unlike Rome’s traditional style of fighting, it took Pompey a long time to begin winning. Eventually Pompey started winning in a war of attrition against Sertorius’s junior officers and after him and Metellus starting taking city by city. Finally, after Sertorius was killed by his very own officer, Marcus Perperna Vento, Pompey crushed him in their first battle and the war ended soon after.
Meanwhile in Rome, Pompey was the people’s champion. He had another triumph after his victory in Spain. Many of his fans thoroughly believe he was the best general of their time, with the gods in his favor. And with the defeat of Sulla and his supporters the plebian’s may regain their deserved civil rights and constitutional privileges that were vacant during Sulla’s reign Because of this He was able to once again circumvent yet another Roman custom and at the age of only 35 he became a Consul without even being a senator, with the result of a vast majority vote. He became Crassus partner serving in 70 BCE.
Two years passed his consulship, Pompey was given and offer to lead a naval force to clear out the pirates in the Mediterranean Sea which was becoming increasingly problematic. There was more opposition then support in Pompey’s favor for this action but with the backing of the Plebians and their Tribune, Aulus Gabinius, he was granted a Lex Gabinia which gave him absolute control of the Mediterranean and in the coastline as far as 50 miles inland. In significantly less time than he was given to complete this task, the Sea was cleared of pirates and communication and trade throughout the Mediterranean was restored. Once again Pompey was a hero in Rome.
Pompey was still in the east resettling pirates as peaceful farmers, while in Rome a new Tribune, Gaius Manilius, inacted a bill assigning Pompey to the command against Mithradates, with full powers to make war and peace and to organize the whole Roman East. Pompey defeated Mithradates in Asia Minor with relative ease. After the death of Mithradates in 63 BCE, Pompey was then free to plan the consolidation of the eastern provinces and frontier kingdoms. The re-organization of the East is if not the greatest, one of the greatest of Pompey’s achievement. His comprehensive appreciation of the geographical and political aspects involved allowed him to execute a general settlement that was to form the foundation of the defensive frontier system and was to endure, with few significant changes, for over 500 years.
Pompey was at his best with all of his influence and respect in 62 BCE when he finally dismissed his army and had his third triumph. For the next decade he reigned supreme until Caesar’s growing military, along with most of the nobles who were never fully behind him, started getting in the way. This led to the first triumvirate. The first triumvirate was an informal alliance between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. This was to benefit all of them with their desired political careers. Pompey, who was now married to Caesar’s daughter, Julia, saw Caesar as his necessary instrument. The three of them protected their ends by violence and corruption after a prolonged struggle. Early in 55 Pompey and Crassus were at last elected consuls. Nonetheless the triumvirate was approaching the end. The death of Julia shattered the strongest bond between Pompey and Caesar, and Crassus suffered a terrible defeat and died in Mesopotamia. The triumvirate was no more.
Pompey watched the lawlessness and disorder in the city becoming day-to-day and more unbearable. He was ready to wait without obliging himself up until the inner circle of nobles, who once never wanted Pompey to get what he wanted, realized an alliance with him was inevitable. He rejected all proposals from Caesar for an alliance. Without any senior magistrates in office, Pompey was called upon to reestablish order. Quickly, Pompey called upon his troops from Italy. Although it was a case that would usually call for making Pompey dictator, it was thought by them to be safer to make him sole consul.
At first, Pompey boasted he could beat Caesar but Caesars growing legions caused Pompey to leave Rome and head east eventually ending in Egypt. While waiting for refuge in Egypt, Caesar was on his way, causing the consular of King Ptomely XIII to debate whether it was smart or not to let Pompey in.Pompey boarded a small boat and sailed to the coast to talk with the hosts of Egypt where there appeared to be a welcoming party. When Pompey arrived he was stabbed to death by his betrayers, Suptimius, Salvius, and Achillas on September 28th 48 BCE.
Pompey’s legacy cast a lasting shadow. A militant champion, that fell short just before real greatness. The Republican hero, who at one point appeared to control all of Rome and its empire in the palm of his hand. His down fall besides Caesar of course, was his own poor judgment and desires. By ending his life in a murder he became a tragic hero. Some called him The Roman Alexander the Great, with a good head and heart, but devastated by the contemptuous ambitions of his fellow Romans.
The Formation of the First Triumvirate.
The First Triumvirate was formed with the intentions of putting the three most powerful men under one banner to effectively bypass any opposition they would encounter on the way to further their goals. The alliance was by no means a peaceful and or uneasy one at any point through its brief time. There were many ups and downs which would eventually tear the alliance apart. However, every story has a beginning, and the beginning of the Triumvirate is all about reducing the headache that the Roman Senate was causing these three men. Pompey’s problem was directly linked to the Senate itself. He had recently returned to Rome from fighting Mithridates, the king of Pontus, in the year 62 BCE (Zoch 175). The Senate had great fear that Pompey would return to Rome with his army like Sulla had done previously. He did no such thing however, he peacefully disbanded his army and walked into Rome as a private Roman citizen (Zoch 176). He had a triumph held for two days and asked two things of the Senate to approve. The first request being his men given land and the second that the Senate ratify his settlement of the east. These were not radical requests by any means to be asked for, but Pompey had made an enemy, Lucius Licinius Lucullus. Lucullus currently a Tribune, led the Senate in an effort to reject both of Pompey’s requests; which he was successful in doing (Zoch 176).
Crassus’ struggle was with the Asian tax, which led him to be invited to the Triumvirate by Caesar (Marin 113). Also being the richest man in Rome played very favorably for him to be invited into this exclusive club. Crassus’ wealth was so immense that he said that “a man was not truly wealthy unless he could support an army of forty thousand from his own funds.” (Zoch 176) Having Crassus as an ally in the Triumvirate would be beneficial to both Pompey and Caesar due to his powerful sway from his wealth he acquired over the years. Another reason Crassus was involved was due to the fact that he sponsored Caesar in becoming Pontifex Maximus (Marin 113).
The final link in the Triumvirate would is Gaius Julius Caesar. His goals was a simple one: to gain as much power as possible. Following that goal, he wished to stand for the consulship and also hold a triumph in the year 59 BCE . The Senate denied his request to stand for the candidacy in absentia, or being absent, a tradition which has long been held that anyone running for public office must stand for that office in person at Rome (Marin 114). Faced with a choice of either having to abandon the consulship or his triumph, he chose the latter and decided to stand for consul (Marin 114). But before he would go about standing for the consulship, due to the fact that he knew he would face much opposition, he gathered Pompey and Crassus to form the First Triumvirate in the year 60 BCE, which Caesar knew would secure himself a victory because of the amount of pull both of those men had within Rome (Zoch 176). With that, Caesar could then use his consul powers to then secure Pompey’s two requests and mainly to appease both of the men he now called allies (Zoch 114). This is the beginning of what we call the First Triumvirate, as well as the visible downfall of the Republican Rome.
The Problems and Reconciliations of the First Triumvirate.
The First Triumvirate had its fair share of problems throughout its life. An inevitable issue that the Triumvirate would have to come to terms with is the Senate by in large finding it very suspicious that the three most powerful men in Rome seem to be collaborating. Pompey was affected by this suspicion greatly because he greatly adored having the peoples love on his side (Zoch 184). Pompey also found much ridicule from the people because of his new bride Julia, the daughter of Julius Caesar. He fell madly in love with her and the people used this as ammunition to ridicule him whenever possible (Marin 116). Caesar also felt the effects of unpopularity. His is due in part to his alliance with the other two as well as his harsh use of the consul position. Caesar himself unused to unpopularity is stuck in a pickle because if he retreats it is a sign of weakness and to try and advance himself can have serious repercussions (Marin 118). Caesar was fortunate to escape his unpopularity with his campaign in Gaul in the year 59 BCE (Zoch 180). His swift leaving of his consul position for his proconsul position in Gaul sparked much concern that Caesar was afraid of retribution for his complete disregard for tradition (Marin 119).
Meanwhile Publius Clodius Pulcher, a shrewd tribune was elected in the 58 BCE. and passed numerous laws that increased his power and popularity with the plebs in Rome (Zoch 181). One of these laws had Cicero, a popular figure in Rome at the time exiled, because Clodius had a personal vendetta against Cicero for speaking out against Clodius at his trial of the Bona Dea scandal. Clodius did not stop his attacks with Cicero though. He went on to attack Pompey multiple times. On one occasion Clodius had his goons openly insult Pompey at the forum and one of Clodius’ slaves attempted to assassinate Pompey (Zoch 182). Because of this Pompey quit public life and went into retirement in which he spent much of his time with his wife Julia. Eventually Pompey needed Cicero back and knew he could win his gratitude by securing his return from exile. Pompey managed to secure Cicero’s return by creating his own group of goons under Titus Annius Milo. The year 57 BCE seen the return of Cicero to the public eye in Rome and repaid Pompey kindly by giving him the position of dictator of the grain supply (Zoch 184). This action would return Pompey as a reputable man and caused tension within the Triumvirate.
In the year 55 BCE Crassus and Pompey were to stand for re-election for the consul position. They succeeded in attaining this position and used it to grant themselves, and Caesar, five year proconsular commands in Spain for Pompey, Gaul for Caesar, and Syria for Crassus (Zoch 184). This deal to grant themselves each five year consulships was known as the Conference at Luca, which took place in the year 56 BCE in the town of Luca (Zoch 184). Caesar comes under serious fire by Cato and Favonius for asking for an extension of his proconsulship in Gaul because he is seen as the radical among the three. The two men, Cato and Favonius, attack the Triumvirate, especially Caesar, because of these five year extensions (Marin 133). A poet, Catullus, even writes a poem about Caesar and openly shows how much he despises Caesar (Marin 133). What this shows is that Caesar is still very unpopular with the Roman people and the senate, and different types of hate are used against Caesar, not limited to, but including “adultery, homosexuality, greed and stupidity” (Marin 134). Pompey again is still riding a wave of popularity from his position as grain dictator and is seen among the Senate, especially Cato, that Pompey is the weak link in the Triumvirate (Marin 143). Pompey will eventually become a pawn of the Senate in the year 49 BCE when the Roman world enters civil war.
The Downfall of The First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate saw its end with the deaths of both Crassus and Julia. Julia was the only bond holding Pompey and Caesar together, with her death there was virtually nothing keeping these two men from an inevitable fight. Her death in the year 54 BCE, during childbirth, as well as her baby a few days later, signaled the end of the Triumvirate (Marin 137). What truly broke the Triumvirate apart was when Crassus was killed on the field of battle against the Parthian general Surenas in the year 53 BCE. Crassus found his forces divided and the Parthian army massacring all of his forces. Crassus’ death in the year 53 BCE made the Triumvirate no more since there was only two left. With neither Julia nor Crassus in the picture it only left Caesar and Pompey making up the Triumvirate (Marin 139).
The final knife in the Triumvirate was when Caesar and Pompey were enemies on the battlefield when the civil war started in the year 49 BCE on January, 10. Pompey fighting on the side of the Republic, and Caesar on the side of the Empire essentially (Marin 154-155). Pompey did not stay in Rome when the civil war started. He took his leave to the east, where he had made many friends and allies. He chose Egypt as his destination, excepting to find safe haven within under the Ptolemaic king Ptolemy Auletes (Zoch 200). To Pompey’s misfortune, he was murdered by the kings ministers, the kings advisor is to have said “a corpse doesn’t bite.” (Zoch 201) They beheaded Pompey and took his signet ring which they presented to Caesar on his arrival to Egypt. Caesar wept at the death of Pompey and had his murders found and killed because of the dishonor that they bestowed upon Pompey by killing him in such a fashion (Zoch 201). Though the Triumvirate died with the death of Crassus in 53 BCE, the death of Pompey in the year 48 BCE left Caesar the only player of the Triumvirate, and the strongest man in Rome unopposed by anyone."
FYI COL Mikel J. Burroughs LTC (Join to see) MAJ Dale E. Wilson, Ph.D. Maj Bill Smith, Ph.D. Maj William W. 'Bill' Price MSG Felipe De Leon Brown SMSgt Lawrence McCarter GySgt Thomas Vick MSgt Robert "Rock" Aldi SSG Stephen Rogerson SSG Chad Henning SPC Chris HallgrimsonMSG Glen MillerPO3 Phyllis MaynardSSG Samuel KermonSP5 Geoffrey VannersonPO2 (Join to see)Cpl (Join to see) CPL Dave Hoover
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LTC Stephen F.
The Fall of Pompey (48 B.C.E.)
The Battle of Pharsalus: https://youtu.be/QfLOaunQqxA Patreon | http://historiacivilis.com/patreon Donate | http://historiacivilis.com/donate Merch | http://...
The Fall of Pompey (48 B.C.E.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_p7K_3BZj8
Images:
1. Illustration of a Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great
2. The Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.)
3. Vintage engraving of Pompey’s flight from Pharsalus 48 BC.
4. Septimius then committed the crucial act, driving a sword into Pompey on September 28, 48 BC
Background from {[http://turningpointsoftheancientworld.com/index.php/2017/10/29/murder-egypt-pompey-greats-assassination/
29/10/2017 KATHERINE BAYFORD LEAVE A COMMENT
Pompey the Great was a Roman general so magnificent that history has proclaimed him “The Roman Alexander”. Throughout his life, he triumphed in many arduous military campaigns, won countless victories and came to epitomise those loyal to the Roman Republic.
Ultimately however, his life would end in tragedy – being brutally assassinated at the hands of his supposed Egyptian allies. Yet if not for this act of betrayal, history as we know it could look very different indeed.
Background: The Roman Republic in the First Century B.C.
Ever since overthrowing its Etruscan kings back in 509 BC, the Roman Republic had come a long way from its small beginnings in Central Italy. Being intensely expansionist and aggressive, Roman power had steadily increased overtime – its armies emerging victorious in war after war.
Macedonia, Greece, much of the Eastern Mediterranean and both the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas. These were just a few places that, by the start of the First Century BC, now found themselves subject to Roman control. Little, if any, of the known world could rival Rome any longer – its hegemony in the Mediterranean was clear. Yet Rome had no plan on halting its expansion just yet; it wanted more.
As this inherent desire for new conquests took hold, so too did the eagerness of individual commanders to claim the wealth and glory that new lands could provide. Some, however, looked inwards.
Civil War: Sulla
In 83 B.C., Cornelius Sulla, a powerful Roman general, made history when he seized absolute power in Rome by force. After gaining a bloody victory and exacting ruthless retribution on his enemies, he assumed the title Dictator in victory. Rome would never be the same again.
The Entrance of Lucius Cornelius Sulla into Rome, 82 BC.
On hearing of this takeover, many in Rome were horrified. Not only had Sulla waged a civil war in which thousands of Rome’s own citizens had perished, but he had also manipulated Roman laws to grab total power. Whilst he would eventually fade from public life, his legacy remained. His seizing of absolute power had now set a precedent. Other ambitious generals would be sure to follow suit.
Before Sulla, Rome had never had a Civil War. Now, another would occur in quick succession, it all starting with the forming of a political alliance in 60 BC:
The First Triumvirate – 60-53 B.C.
The Triumvirate was a secret alliance in Rome between three intensely wealthy and ambitious men of the Republic – Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Through this political alliance, these men ensured each was kept in considerable power through the covert support of the other two. As their ambitions rested on this informal political alliance keeping them in power, the need to support their fellow triumvirs was essential. Pompey and Caesar, for example, strengthened their relationship by a marriage between Pompey and Caesar’s daughter, Julia. Yet of the three men, in 60 B.C., one in particular outshone the rest in both fame and glory.
Illustration of a Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great
That man was Pompey, ‘The Roman Alexander.‘ Having a formidable military record, impeccable reputation, and vast personal wealth, by 60 BC, he had risen high to become one of the most famous men in Rome. His past achievements speak for themselves.
Pompey’s achievements
Pompey had first gained recognition over 20 years before, during Sulla’s Civil War. Having quickly aligned himself with Sulla and the optimates, there Pompey would quickly make a name for himself by recovering the provinces of both Sicily and Africa from Sulla’s opponents within a year. In return, Sulla bestowed extravagant courtesies upon his young general. Not only did he allow him the title of imperator (an honorific for a victorious general that ordinarily only the Senate could grant) but the new dictator also gave Pompey his stepdaughter to marry.
All these gifts would not satisfy Pompey’s ambition however. With power seemingly flowing to his head, Pompey demanded even more from Sulla, claiming,
…more worshipped the rising sun (i.e Pompey) than the setting sun (i.e Sulla).
(Plutarch, Pompey 14.3).
Rather than this evident slight offending him, Sulla – perhaps seeing his own younger-self in Pompey’s ambitious attitude – relented. A triumph from him to Pompey soon followed.
Another lavish triumph would be granted in 71 B.C. for his reconquest of Spain and a third ten years later for further success in modern-day Turkey. Pompey’s unrelenting ambition had paid off.
A Roman Triumph
Such splendour and the obvious pride Pompey gained with these honours won him few friends, but his outstanding military and political achievements quickly made him impossible to ignore.
An Ideal Triumvir
Continuing to gain successes, by 60 B.C. Pompey’s influence in Rome had become widespread, wielding him great power. He was, therefore, an ideal figure for the newly-formed Triumvirate – being powerful, wealthy and famous.
But whilst of the three men Pompey’s accolades were surely the greatest, both Caesar and Crassus were equally ambitious. They too, like Pompey, both had their own grand personal desires. It would prove the Triumvirate’s greatest problem.
The Triumvirate Frays
Such ambition quickly led to a flat-out rivalry between the three men. Tension brewed constantly and very soon, it spilled out into the public eye:
During a trial in which Pompey was defending a fellow Senator, Clodius, an old enemy of his (and supporter of his fellow Triumvir, Crassus), began a chant in the crowd aimed at disparaging the ‘Roman Alexander’ and his ambitions to lead military campaigns in Egypt. Clodius shouted:
“Who’s starving the people to death?”
To which the crowd replied:
“Pompey!”
“Who is eager to go to Alexandria?”
“Pompey!”
Finally, Clodius turned to the crowd and asked them who they wanted to see go instead.
“Crassus!” boomed the crowd.
(Cicero, Selected Letters, 82.2)
Crassus? Pompey’s supposed ally? Pompey was aghast at the revelation that his fellow triumvir was turning the public away from him. In the brawl that broke out immediately after, men pulled Pompey from his speaking platform as Crassus’ supporters began to hurl abuse and spit on him.
It was a long fall from grace for a man with three Roman triumphs. The Triumvirate, it was now clear to see, was fraying sharply and so too was Pompey’s support. Crassus, it appeared, was determined to reign in Pompey’s power. The richest man in Rome was not satisfied with simply being one of the most powerful men in Rome; he wanted to be the most powerful, not wanting to share that title with anyone. To Crassus, the Triumvirate was (likely) merely a stepping block to achieving this.
The Fall of the Triumvirate (53-49 B.C.)
Such was the extent of Crassus’ determination to fulfill this ambition, that soon after the trial incident, Pompey even suspected Crassus would send assassins after him to help achieve this aim. Ultimately, however, Crassus would meet his own end before any assassination of Pompey, real or imagined, could take place.
His disastrous attempt to re-take Mesopotamia from the Parthians culminated in the catastrophic Battle of Carrhae, in which his opponents severely outsmarted and weakened him before humiliating him in a grotesque death. Carrhae had been one of the worst defeats the Romans had ever known, with over 30,000 Roman casualties – including Crassus. Of the original Triumvirate, only Caesar and Pompey now remained.
The alliance of Caesar and Pompey had always been rocky, but the death of Julia Caesar in childbirth the year before in 54 B.C. had already severed the last legal tie between the two men. Crassus’ death was the nail in the coffin. With the deaths of Julia and Crassus, the Triumvirate perished. Pompey and Caesar, now finding themselves separated, would become set on two diverging paths that would ultimately lead to one of the most famous wars in Antiquity.
Caesar: Success in Gaul
Caesar’s Success in Gaul. By 51 BC, Caesar had defied all odds with one of the greatest Roman military campaigns to date. Not only had he waged successful campaigns in Gaul, Germania and Southern Britain, but his continued military successes against incredible odds could rival even those of the Great Alexander. Through these multiple venerable successes, Caesar gained huge popularity among the Roman people. The Republican Senators however, became weary. Artwork by © Johnny Shumate. Available on Etsy.
As Caesar started to achieve success after success in his Gallic Campaign against all the odds, the conservative Roman senators back home grew wary. Caesar, they could see, was becoming more powerful with every victory. As his power continued to grow, so too did their fear.
Could Caesar, they began thinking, use his military power to manipulate the Republic’s laws and gain himself a dictatorship that would allow him absolute power for life? There was definitely a possibility – Sulla had done exactly the same! They could not stand idly by and let such a scenario happen once again. They had to take action.
Crossing the Rubicon
The whispering intensified – Dictator. Yet any attempts to significantly quell Caesar’s power failed. Caesar, finding himself increasingly demonised by those in the Senate back in Rome, therefore decided to put matters into his own hands. In January, 49 B.C, he crossed Italy’s Northern border – the River Rubicon – with his veteran army.
By entering Italy proper with his force, Caesar had committed treason against the Republic; having an army at his back, to those already-suspicious senators back in Rome, he was now clearly following in the footsteps of Sulla. Civil War was inevitable. Pompey, hailed as the new Alexander the Great, with the support of the Roman Senate and having no remaining ties to Caesar, fronted the Republic’s campaign. Rome was at war with itself. Pompey was to battle Caesar.
POMPEY: MURDER IN EGYPT (PART 2)
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Years before, jubilant from a past victory in North Africa, Pompey had attempted to ride into Rome on a chariot wheeled by four elephants.
Although the small size of the city’s gates would in the end force him to abandon this idea, Pompey’s hope of awing the Roman people with this jaw-dropping spectacle was clear for all to see. Most Romans would have never seen an elephant before!
Two further equally-splendorous triumphs would not dull the Roman Alexander’s sense of accomplishment; nor would the title Magnus (Latin for ‘great’) that the Republic then bestowed upon him. Pompey knew he was a great general and he made sure everyone else knew it too.
In 49 B.C. therefore, when peers questioned the number of troops the Roman Republic held, Pompey confidently replied,
…in whatever part of Italy I stamp upon the ground, there will spring up armies of infantry and cavalry.
(Plutarch Pompey, 57.9).
Pompey was confident in victory. He had certainly proven his formidable military ability in the past, of that there is no doubt. But the same could not be said for the majority of his Republican army.
Although willing to fight under the great Pompey Magnus (as Pompey had proudly boasted), most of these newly-mustered Roman legionaries were raw recruits, inexperienced in fighting in the heat of battle. Pompey certainly had the numbers. Whether he had the quality, however, would tell soon enough.
Fresh from War
Caesar’s Legions. With most of his troops having fought with him for nine long years in Gaul, Caesar could boast of having one of the most experienced, devoted armies in Roman history at his disposal when Civil War broke out. Artwork by © Johnny Shumate. Available on Etsy.
Caesar, on the other hand, championed realism. Rather than playing to past glory, he focused on the strengths he held, rather than ones he felt entitled to. Fresh from fighting limitless tribes of bloodthirsty barbarians for the past nine years, Caesar commanded an army unmatched in both their skill and in their devotion to him – a great advantage over Pompey’s less-experienced legions. And Caesar knew it.
Likewise, Caesar also knew that his own experiences fighting in the unknowns of Gaul, Germania and Britain would also have great benefits. Whereas many of Pompey’s accomplishments had been won through classical generalship, Caesar represented a new form of tactical cunning that had gained him so many victories against outrageous odds (his famed Seige of Alesia especially comes to mind) . This cunning, he knew, he could take full advantage of to overcome his rival.
The Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.)
Pharsalus and the Roman Republic: 48 BC
On the 9th August 48 BC, Pompey’s troops met Caesar’s in Greece at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar’s position was rotten, and both men knew it. His army was approximately 30,000 strong, with a provisions problem resulting from a successful blockade of troops and supplies. Pompey’s army was around twice the size, holding at least 53, 000 men. The odds were heavily in Pompey’s favour.
Pompey thus chose a strong position from which to make camp, positioning himself with the sea behind and mountains protecting his flanks. For Caesar there was now no escape; Pompey had successfully forced his opponent into a desperate corner. Wanting to take no chances however, Pompey settled down and waited to starve Caesar out. He needed to win.
Pressured to Fight
So, why didn’t he? It was clear ‘The New Alexander’ should have won, and sources largely agree that his plan of waiting for Caesar to starve would have won him the battle. Even Caesar himself sought peace when he realised the direness of his situation.
Unfortunately for Pompey however, when he set off to war with Caesar he was joined by fellow esteemed figures of the Republic and their counterparts from foreign lands: senators, princes, knights, all exasperated by the slow pace of Pompey’s success, all suspicious of the power he wielded and
…all demanding battle, some by reason of inexperience… and some because they were tired of the war and preferred a quick decision to a sound one.
(App. BC. 2.67.1)
The amount of pressure put on Pompey was so great that even Caesar would later write sympathetically about it. Yet whilst Caesar would never have weakened his position to appease his colleagues, Pompey’s habitual need to be liked by the men around him who sought a swift military victory to quickly destroy Caesar, resulted in him meeting his opponent in open battle at a nearby field.
Such a rash decision would prove telling. Outsmarting Pompey completely, Caesar gained an unexpected crushing victory. Later on, the victor would write that he had lost only 230 men in the battle. Pompey, on the other hand, lost upwards of 6,000.
Taking Flight
So great was the defeat at Pharsalus that Pompey fled in disguise to Egypt, leaving all but his family to defend the camp he had run from. Whilst the battle did not end the civil war, it was a decisive victory of huge magnitude for Caesar. To many, this was the day that the Republic died.
Caesar had smashed not just the army of the Republic, but also near-defeated their top general. He now found himself in an enormous position of power to deal mercy or cruelty to those that had opposed him. Yet Pompey himself had escaped and as long as he remained active, Caesar knew he would continue to be a dangerous figurehead for his opponents to rally around. Hearing of his escape, Caesar therefore made quick in pursuit and set sail for Egypt.
Ptolemaic Egypt
Following the death of Alexander the Great over 270 years before, many of his former generals had fought against one another for decades, desiring prominence in the new Hellenistic World. One such general was Ptolemy.
Taking control of Egypt, there Ptolemy created one of the greatest Greek kingdoms in antiquity. Under his descendants too, his dynasty remained one of the strongest and most prestigious kingdoms of the time for over a century. By 48 B.C., however, much had changed.
At the time of Pompey’s flight, the once-great Ptolemaic dynasty had become so crippled by political machinations and incestuous marriages that its independence had become barely visible. Rome was now firmly in control, with the area operating very much as its satellite/client state.
Becoming a Client State
When Ptolemy XII was exiled from his own country, he fled to Rome, heavily indebted to their creditors. There, Pompey had housed the exiled monarch, and thanks to his efforts, helped return Ptolemy to power. So indebted was Ptolemy XII to Rome (and, in turn, to Pompey) Cicero wrote that the Egyptian king had,
…sacrificed much… even the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before the Roman people as a mere supplicant.
(Cicero, Pro Rabirio Postumo 54.37).
Despite their Kings supposedly embodying the Gods themselves, Egypt had, through Ptolemy XII, become subservient to Rome. Following Pharsalus, it was now Caesar, Pompey’s enemy, that controlled Rome. Was Egypt now supplicant to Caesar?
Deliberation
When the advisers of the boy king Ptolemy XIII therefore heard of Pompey arriving at their doorstep, it was unwelcome news. Both Pompey and the Egyptians knew that they owed the man due to the previous aid Pompey had given the preceding Ptolemy XII. But they also knew that Caesar was in eager pursuit.
Feeling obliged to open their doors to Pompey, yet wanting to align themselves with the apparent winner of the civil war, Ptolemy’s regent – a eunuch named Pothinus – devised a strategy that he assured his young King would win Egypt the favour of Julius Caesar.
Betrayal
On the 28th September 48 BC, Septimius, head of the Egyptian army, sailed to Pompey the Great’s ship on a meagre fishing boat with a few military men. Highly suspicious of the lack of decorum and respect shown to their former champion, Pompey’s wife and advisors sensed trouble; they pleaded with him not to embark on the tiny vessel. Upon boarding and being shown a galling lack of respect by his former allies, Pompey asked Septimius (who was once one of Pompey’s own officers),
“Am I mistaken, or were you not once my fellow soldier?”.
Septimius’s response was to nod once soberly,
‘making no reply, nor showing any friendliness’
(Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 79.2)
In an instant, Septimius then committed the crucial act, driving a sword into Pompey. With this being the signal, the others on the boat then moved in too with their own daggers to finish the job. Pompey’s wife and entourage, in full view of the spectacle, could only watch, helpless to act.
Virtuous, even in Death
Plutarch writes, that, at the moment of assassination, Pompey
…[drew] his toga over his face with both his hands, and neither saying nor doing anything unworthy of himself… endured their blows, having lived for fifty-nine years, and ending his life one day after his birthday.
(Plutarch. Pompey. 79.4)
Even during his death, Pompey showed the characteristic strength and dignity that had gained him extreme popularity and adoration from the people of Rome.
The Aftermath
Dumping his corpse on the beach, Septimius carved Pompey’s head from his body and brought the decapitated head to Pothinus who made it ready to present to Caesar in a display of loyalty to him. Arriving in Egypt, Caesar therefore landed to be greeted with the severed head and signet ring of his once-formidable opponent. Yet on seeing this, rather than rejoicing – as the Egyptians had expected – Caesar wept, appalled at such a hideous sight.
In trying to curry favour with Caesar, the Egyptians had completely failed. Not only had they deprived Caesar of showing his foe the public display of mercy he had planned, but they had also killed a man very close to Caesar’s heart. Formerly, Pompey had been not only his friend, but also his son-in-law, and, most importantly, a fellow citizen of Rome. The Ptolemies however, had treated him with the utmost disdain; they had given him a barbaric death, unworthy of such an esteemed Roman. They would be sure to regret it soon enough.
Pothinus had made a fatal error in not understanding that Caesar wanted his enemies alive, rather than dead. In granting men who had fought against him clemency, Caesar could present himself to the Roman people as a reasonable and judicious figure. Indeed, this was how he had won the public loyalty of several high-profile former opponents, such as Cassius, Cicero, and Brutus (though many would not remain loyal for long). With Pompey’s cruel assassination, Caesar had no olive branch to extend towards a defeated foe; instead, on hearing of their general’s cruel end, Pompey’s men became scattered and scared with Pompey’s sons continuing the civil war in place of their father for years afterwards.
Radical Change in Egypt
The ill-judged assassination would result in a loss of life not only for Pompey however. As for Ponthius, his decision to kill Pompey would have dire consequences. Caesar’s first action was to have the eunuch killed as retribution for the crime, alongside Septimius, the murderer of Pompey.
The assassination would place Caesar firmly in the camp of Ptolemy’s sister Cleopatra VII. Soon enough he would fight for her side in an Egyptian civil war against Ptolemy XIII. Upon victory in this conflict, the young king’s death soon followed, apparently drowning while attempting to flee. Caesar’s vengeance on the instigators of Pompey’s murder was complete.
Placing Cleopatra on the throne, Caesar would cement his power on the Ptolemaic dynasty by taking Cleopatre as a lover. He would even sire a child by the name of Caesarion with her (literally, little Caesar). For the next 17 years, Cleopatra would rule Egypt, eventually falling from power in the famed doomed love affair between herself and Marc Anthony.
All these subsequent events can be traced back to the fatal orders of one man: Ponthius, the eunuch.
The ‘Setting Sun’
As for Pompey, if he had lived, he may well have conceded defeat to Caesar, and, if so, been allowed to keep his standing and offices in Roman society. Caesar had a record for not only pardoning his enemies but also restoring them to their previous positions of power – even if they had previously lead armies against him.
If so, then it is fascinating to wonder what Pompey would have done next. Perhaps the Roman Alexander would have become another of Caesar’s future assassins? Or perhaps his defeat at Caesar’s hands may have cowed Pompey enough to stop resisting any longer; just as he had once told Sulla, it would now have been his turn to be a ‘setting sun’ in the Roman political arena, perhaps retiring to his lands in Hispania, away from public life. All possible if not for Pompey’s untimely death on the shores of Egypt.
In Review
Whilst it was Pharsalus “that condemned the Republic to die”, it was the assassination of Pompey that resulted in the execution of that condemnation. Additionally, it may have condemned Caesar to die too. The faction opposing him had lost a figurehead, but refused to give up. Now they resorted to underhand tactics, planning to end Caesar’s reign not on the battlefield, but in the centre of Rome itself. Ultimately they would accomplish in minutes what Pompey the Great had failed to do in years of war. Mirroring the brutality of his very assassination, Caesar’s enemies in the senate stabbed him to death on the Ides of March at the foot of Pompey’s statue.
Yet consider how different this period would look if Pompey had survived. What if he had not suffered such an inhumane fate? Would he have continued the fight of the Republicans? Or would Caesar have granted him clemency instead and allowed him to live a peaceful life under his dictatorship? And what of the Ptolemaic Egyptian dynasty? Would it have survived for longer under a boy King allowed to grow and govern? All fascinating questions to consider in a world where Pompey had not died that fateful day in Egypt.
Conclusion
Pompey’s death marked the end of the Republic as Rome had known it. Triumphant in victory, Caesar proclaimed himself Dictator Perpetuo (‘Dictator for life), and began a dynasty that would last until the suicide of the emperor Nero. The Roman Republic was dead; many of its greatest men had perished with it. In its place stood an empire that would last, in some form or other, for over the next thousand years.
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Images:
1. Illustration of a Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great
2. The Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.)
3. Vintage engraving of Pompey’s flight from Pharsalus 48 BC.
4. Septimius then committed the crucial act, driving a sword into Pompey on September 28, 48 BC
Background from {[http://turningpointsoftheancientworld.com/index.php/2017/10/29/murder-egypt-pompey-greats-assassination/
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Pompey the Great was a Roman general so magnificent that history has proclaimed him “The Roman Alexander”. Throughout his life, he triumphed in many arduous military campaigns, won countless victories and came to epitomise those loyal to the Roman Republic.
Ultimately however, his life would end in tragedy – being brutally assassinated at the hands of his supposed Egyptian allies. Yet if not for this act of betrayal, history as we know it could look very different indeed.
Background: The Roman Republic in the First Century B.C.
Ever since overthrowing its Etruscan kings back in 509 BC, the Roman Republic had come a long way from its small beginnings in Central Italy. Being intensely expansionist and aggressive, Roman power had steadily increased overtime – its armies emerging victorious in war after war.
Macedonia, Greece, much of the Eastern Mediterranean and both the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas. These were just a few places that, by the start of the First Century BC, now found themselves subject to Roman control. Little, if any, of the known world could rival Rome any longer – its hegemony in the Mediterranean was clear. Yet Rome had no plan on halting its expansion just yet; it wanted more.
As this inherent desire for new conquests took hold, so too did the eagerness of individual commanders to claim the wealth and glory that new lands could provide. Some, however, looked inwards.
Civil War: Sulla
In 83 B.C., Cornelius Sulla, a powerful Roman general, made history when he seized absolute power in Rome by force. After gaining a bloody victory and exacting ruthless retribution on his enemies, he assumed the title Dictator in victory. Rome would never be the same again.
The Entrance of Lucius Cornelius Sulla into Rome, 82 BC.
On hearing of this takeover, many in Rome were horrified. Not only had Sulla waged a civil war in which thousands of Rome’s own citizens had perished, but he had also manipulated Roman laws to grab total power. Whilst he would eventually fade from public life, his legacy remained. His seizing of absolute power had now set a precedent. Other ambitious generals would be sure to follow suit.
Before Sulla, Rome had never had a Civil War. Now, another would occur in quick succession, it all starting with the forming of a political alliance in 60 BC:
The First Triumvirate – 60-53 B.C.
The Triumvirate was a secret alliance in Rome between three intensely wealthy and ambitious men of the Republic – Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Through this political alliance, these men ensured each was kept in considerable power through the covert support of the other two. As their ambitions rested on this informal political alliance keeping them in power, the need to support their fellow triumvirs was essential. Pompey and Caesar, for example, strengthened their relationship by a marriage between Pompey and Caesar’s daughter, Julia. Yet of the three men, in 60 B.C., one in particular outshone the rest in both fame and glory.
Illustration of a Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great
That man was Pompey, ‘The Roman Alexander.‘ Having a formidable military record, impeccable reputation, and vast personal wealth, by 60 BC, he had risen high to become one of the most famous men in Rome. His past achievements speak for themselves.
Pompey’s achievements
Pompey had first gained recognition over 20 years before, during Sulla’s Civil War. Having quickly aligned himself with Sulla and the optimates, there Pompey would quickly make a name for himself by recovering the provinces of both Sicily and Africa from Sulla’s opponents within a year. In return, Sulla bestowed extravagant courtesies upon his young general. Not only did he allow him the title of imperator (an honorific for a victorious general that ordinarily only the Senate could grant) but the new dictator also gave Pompey his stepdaughter to marry.
All these gifts would not satisfy Pompey’s ambition however. With power seemingly flowing to his head, Pompey demanded even more from Sulla, claiming,
…more worshipped the rising sun (i.e Pompey) than the setting sun (i.e Sulla).
(Plutarch, Pompey 14.3).
Rather than this evident slight offending him, Sulla – perhaps seeing his own younger-self in Pompey’s ambitious attitude – relented. A triumph from him to Pompey soon followed.
Another lavish triumph would be granted in 71 B.C. for his reconquest of Spain and a third ten years later for further success in modern-day Turkey. Pompey’s unrelenting ambition had paid off.
A Roman Triumph
Such splendour and the obvious pride Pompey gained with these honours won him few friends, but his outstanding military and political achievements quickly made him impossible to ignore.
An Ideal Triumvir
Continuing to gain successes, by 60 B.C. Pompey’s influence in Rome had become widespread, wielding him great power. He was, therefore, an ideal figure for the newly-formed Triumvirate – being powerful, wealthy and famous.
But whilst of the three men Pompey’s accolades were surely the greatest, both Caesar and Crassus were equally ambitious. They too, like Pompey, both had their own grand personal desires. It would prove the Triumvirate’s greatest problem.
The Triumvirate Frays
Such ambition quickly led to a flat-out rivalry between the three men. Tension brewed constantly and very soon, it spilled out into the public eye:
During a trial in which Pompey was defending a fellow Senator, Clodius, an old enemy of his (and supporter of his fellow Triumvir, Crassus), began a chant in the crowd aimed at disparaging the ‘Roman Alexander’ and his ambitions to lead military campaigns in Egypt. Clodius shouted:
“Who’s starving the people to death?”
To which the crowd replied:
“Pompey!”
“Who is eager to go to Alexandria?”
“Pompey!”
Finally, Clodius turned to the crowd and asked them who they wanted to see go instead.
“Crassus!” boomed the crowd.
(Cicero, Selected Letters, 82.2)
Crassus? Pompey’s supposed ally? Pompey was aghast at the revelation that his fellow triumvir was turning the public away from him. In the brawl that broke out immediately after, men pulled Pompey from his speaking platform as Crassus’ supporters began to hurl abuse and spit on him.
It was a long fall from grace for a man with three Roman triumphs. The Triumvirate, it was now clear to see, was fraying sharply and so too was Pompey’s support. Crassus, it appeared, was determined to reign in Pompey’s power. The richest man in Rome was not satisfied with simply being one of the most powerful men in Rome; he wanted to be the most powerful, not wanting to share that title with anyone. To Crassus, the Triumvirate was (likely) merely a stepping block to achieving this.
The Fall of the Triumvirate (53-49 B.C.)
Such was the extent of Crassus’ determination to fulfill this ambition, that soon after the trial incident, Pompey even suspected Crassus would send assassins after him to help achieve this aim. Ultimately, however, Crassus would meet his own end before any assassination of Pompey, real or imagined, could take place.
His disastrous attempt to re-take Mesopotamia from the Parthians culminated in the catastrophic Battle of Carrhae, in which his opponents severely outsmarted and weakened him before humiliating him in a grotesque death. Carrhae had been one of the worst defeats the Romans had ever known, with over 30,000 Roman casualties – including Crassus. Of the original Triumvirate, only Caesar and Pompey now remained.
The alliance of Caesar and Pompey had always been rocky, but the death of Julia Caesar in childbirth the year before in 54 B.C. had already severed the last legal tie between the two men. Crassus’ death was the nail in the coffin. With the deaths of Julia and Crassus, the Triumvirate perished. Pompey and Caesar, now finding themselves separated, would become set on two diverging paths that would ultimately lead to one of the most famous wars in Antiquity.
Caesar: Success in Gaul
Caesar’s Success in Gaul. By 51 BC, Caesar had defied all odds with one of the greatest Roman military campaigns to date. Not only had he waged successful campaigns in Gaul, Germania and Southern Britain, but his continued military successes against incredible odds could rival even those of the Great Alexander. Through these multiple venerable successes, Caesar gained huge popularity among the Roman people. The Republican Senators however, became weary. Artwork by © Johnny Shumate. Available on Etsy.
As Caesar started to achieve success after success in his Gallic Campaign against all the odds, the conservative Roman senators back home grew wary. Caesar, they could see, was becoming more powerful with every victory. As his power continued to grow, so too did their fear.
Could Caesar, they began thinking, use his military power to manipulate the Republic’s laws and gain himself a dictatorship that would allow him absolute power for life? There was definitely a possibility – Sulla had done exactly the same! They could not stand idly by and let such a scenario happen once again. They had to take action.
Crossing the Rubicon
The whispering intensified – Dictator. Yet any attempts to significantly quell Caesar’s power failed. Caesar, finding himself increasingly demonised by those in the Senate back in Rome, therefore decided to put matters into his own hands. In January, 49 B.C, he crossed Italy’s Northern border – the River Rubicon – with his veteran army.
By entering Italy proper with his force, Caesar had committed treason against the Republic; having an army at his back, to those already-suspicious senators back in Rome, he was now clearly following in the footsteps of Sulla. Civil War was inevitable. Pompey, hailed as the new Alexander the Great, with the support of the Roman Senate and having no remaining ties to Caesar, fronted the Republic’s campaign. Rome was at war with itself. Pompey was to battle Caesar.
POMPEY: MURDER IN EGYPT (PART 2)
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Years before, jubilant from a past victory in North Africa, Pompey had attempted to ride into Rome on a chariot wheeled by four elephants.
Although the small size of the city’s gates would in the end force him to abandon this idea, Pompey’s hope of awing the Roman people with this jaw-dropping spectacle was clear for all to see. Most Romans would have never seen an elephant before!
Two further equally-splendorous triumphs would not dull the Roman Alexander’s sense of accomplishment; nor would the title Magnus (Latin for ‘great’) that the Republic then bestowed upon him. Pompey knew he was a great general and he made sure everyone else knew it too.
In 49 B.C. therefore, when peers questioned the number of troops the Roman Republic held, Pompey confidently replied,
…in whatever part of Italy I stamp upon the ground, there will spring up armies of infantry and cavalry.
(Plutarch Pompey, 57.9).
Pompey was confident in victory. He had certainly proven his formidable military ability in the past, of that there is no doubt. But the same could not be said for the majority of his Republican army.
Although willing to fight under the great Pompey Magnus (as Pompey had proudly boasted), most of these newly-mustered Roman legionaries were raw recruits, inexperienced in fighting in the heat of battle. Pompey certainly had the numbers. Whether he had the quality, however, would tell soon enough.
Fresh from War
Caesar’s Legions. With most of his troops having fought with him for nine long years in Gaul, Caesar could boast of having one of the most experienced, devoted armies in Roman history at his disposal when Civil War broke out. Artwork by © Johnny Shumate. Available on Etsy.
Caesar, on the other hand, championed realism. Rather than playing to past glory, he focused on the strengths he held, rather than ones he felt entitled to. Fresh from fighting limitless tribes of bloodthirsty barbarians for the past nine years, Caesar commanded an army unmatched in both their skill and in their devotion to him – a great advantage over Pompey’s less-experienced legions. And Caesar knew it.
Likewise, Caesar also knew that his own experiences fighting in the unknowns of Gaul, Germania and Britain would also have great benefits. Whereas many of Pompey’s accomplishments had been won through classical generalship, Caesar represented a new form of tactical cunning that had gained him so many victories against outrageous odds (his famed Seige of Alesia especially comes to mind) . This cunning, he knew, he could take full advantage of to overcome his rival.
The Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.)
Pharsalus and the Roman Republic: 48 BC
On the 9th August 48 BC, Pompey’s troops met Caesar’s in Greece at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar’s position was rotten, and both men knew it. His army was approximately 30,000 strong, with a provisions problem resulting from a successful blockade of troops and supplies. Pompey’s army was around twice the size, holding at least 53, 000 men. The odds were heavily in Pompey’s favour.
Pompey thus chose a strong position from which to make camp, positioning himself with the sea behind and mountains protecting his flanks. For Caesar there was now no escape; Pompey had successfully forced his opponent into a desperate corner. Wanting to take no chances however, Pompey settled down and waited to starve Caesar out. He needed to win.
Pressured to Fight
So, why didn’t he? It was clear ‘The New Alexander’ should have won, and sources largely agree that his plan of waiting for Caesar to starve would have won him the battle. Even Caesar himself sought peace when he realised the direness of his situation.
Unfortunately for Pompey however, when he set off to war with Caesar he was joined by fellow esteemed figures of the Republic and their counterparts from foreign lands: senators, princes, knights, all exasperated by the slow pace of Pompey’s success, all suspicious of the power he wielded and
…all demanding battle, some by reason of inexperience… and some because they were tired of the war and preferred a quick decision to a sound one.
(App. BC. 2.67.1)
The amount of pressure put on Pompey was so great that even Caesar would later write sympathetically about it. Yet whilst Caesar would never have weakened his position to appease his colleagues, Pompey’s habitual need to be liked by the men around him who sought a swift military victory to quickly destroy Caesar, resulted in him meeting his opponent in open battle at a nearby field.
Such a rash decision would prove telling. Outsmarting Pompey completely, Caesar gained an unexpected crushing victory. Later on, the victor would write that he had lost only 230 men in the battle. Pompey, on the other hand, lost upwards of 6,000.
Taking Flight
So great was the defeat at Pharsalus that Pompey fled in disguise to Egypt, leaving all but his family to defend the camp he had run from. Whilst the battle did not end the civil war, it was a decisive victory of huge magnitude for Caesar. To many, this was the day that the Republic died.
Caesar had smashed not just the army of the Republic, but also near-defeated their top general. He now found himself in an enormous position of power to deal mercy or cruelty to those that had opposed him. Yet Pompey himself had escaped and as long as he remained active, Caesar knew he would continue to be a dangerous figurehead for his opponents to rally around. Hearing of his escape, Caesar therefore made quick in pursuit and set sail for Egypt.
Ptolemaic Egypt
Following the death of Alexander the Great over 270 years before, many of his former generals had fought against one another for decades, desiring prominence in the new Hellenistic World. One such general was Ptolemy.
Taking control of Egypt, there Ptolemy created one of the greatest Greek kingdoms in antiquity. Under his descendants too, his dynasty remained one of the strongest and most prestigious kingdoms of the time for over a century. By 48 B.C., however, much had changed.
At the time of Pompey’s flight, the once-great Ptolemaic dynasty had become so crippled by political machinations and incestuous marriages that its independence had become barely visible. Rome was now firmly in control, with the area operating very much as its satellite/client state.
Becoming a Client State
When Ptolemy XII was exiled from his own country, he fled to Rome, heavily indebted to their creditors. There, Pompey had housed the exiled monarch, and thanks to his efforts, helped return Ptolemy to power. So indebted was Ptolemy XII to Rome (and, in turn, to Pompey) Cicero wrote that the Egyptian king had,
…sacrificed much… even the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before the Roman people as a mere supplicant.
(Cicero, Pro Rabirio Postumo 54.37).
Despite their Kings supposedly embodying the Gods themselves, Egypt had, through Ptolemy XII, become subservient to Rome. Following Pharsalus, it was now Caesar, Pompey’s enemy, that controlled Rome. Was Egypt now supplicant to Caesar?
Deliberation
When the advisers of the boy king Ptolemy XIII therefore heard of Pompey arriving at their doorstep, it was unwelcome news. Both Pompey and the Egyptians knew that they owed the man due to the previous aid Pompey had given the preceding Ptolemy XII. But they also knew that Caesar was in eager pursuit.
Feeling obliged to open their doors to Pompey, yet wanting to align themselves with the apparent winner of the civil war, Ptolemy’s regent – a eunuch named Pothinus – devised a strategy that he assured his young King would win Egypt the favour of Julius Caesar.
Betrayal
On the 28th September 48 BC, Septimius, head of the Egyptian army, sailed to Pompey the Great’s ship on a meagre fishing boat with a few military men. Highly suspicious of the lack of decorum and respect shown to their former champion, Pompey’s wife and advisors sensed trouble; they pleaded with him not to embark on the tiny vessel. Upon boarding and being shown a galling lack of respect by his former allies, Pompey asked Septimius (who was once one of Pompey’s own officers),
“Am I mistaken, or were you not once my fellow soldier?”.
Septimius’s response was to nod once soberly,
‘making no reply, nor showing any friendliness’
(Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 79.2)
In an instant, Septimius then committed the crucial act, driving a sword into Pompey. With this being the signal, the others on the boat then moved in too with their own daggers to finish the job. Pompey’s wife and entourage, in full view of the spectacle, could only watch, helpless to act.
Virtuous, even in Death
Plutarch writes, that, at the moment of assassination, Pompey
…[drew] his toga over his face with both his hands, and neither saying nor doing anything unworthy of himself… endured their blows, having lived for fifty-nine years, and ending his life one day after his birthday.
(Plutarch. Pompey. 79.4)
Even during his death, Pompey showed the characteristic strength and dignity that had gained him extreme popularity and adoration from the people of Rome.
The Aftermath
Dumping his corpse on the beach, Septimius carved Pompey’s head from his body and brought the decapitated head to Pothinus who made it ready to present to Caesar in a display of loyalty to him. Arriving in Egypt, Caesar therefore landed to be greeted with the severed head and signet ring of his once-formidable opponent. Yet on seeing this, rather than rejoicing – as the Egyptians had expected – Caesar wept, appalled at such a hideous sight.
In trying to curry favour with Caesar, the Egyptians had completely failed. Not only had they deprived Caesar of showing his foe the public display of mercy he had planned, but they had also killed a man very close to Caesar’s heart. Formerly, Pompey had been not only his friend, but also his son-in-law, and, most importantly, a fellow citizen of Rome. The Ptolemies however, had treated him with the utmost disdain; they had given him a barbaric death, unworthy of such an esteemed Roman. They would be sure to regret it soon enough.
Pothinus had made a fatal error in not understanding that Caesar wanted his enemies alive, rather than dead. In granting men who had fought against him clemency, Caesar could present himself to the Roman people as a reasonable and judicious figure. Indeed, this was how he had won the public loyalty of several high-profile former opponents, such as Cassius, Cicero, and Brutus (though many would not remain loyal for long). With Pompey’s cruel assassination, Caesar had no olive branch to extend towards a defeated foe; instead, on hearing of their general’s cruel end, Pompey’s men became scattered and scared with Pompey’s sons continuing the civil war in place of their father for years afterwards.
Radical Change in Egypt
The ill-judged assassination would result in a loss of life not only for Pompey however. As for Ponthius, his decision to kill Pompey would have dire consequences. Caesar’s first action was to have the eunuch killed as retribution for the crime, alongside Septimius, the murderer of Pompey.
The assassination would place Caesar firmly in the camp of Ptolemy’s sister Cleopatra VII. Soon enough he would fight for her side in an Egyptian civil war against Ptolemy XIII. Upon victory in this conflict, the young king’s death soon followed, apparently drowning while attempting to flee. Caesar’s vengeance on the instigators of Pompey’s murder was complete.
Placing Cleopatra on the throne, Caesar would cement his power on the Ptolemaic dynasty by taking Cleopatre as a lover. He would even sire a child by the name of Caesarion with her (literally, little Caesar). For the next 17 years, Cleopatra would rule Egypt, eventually falling from power in the famed doomed love affair between herself and Marc Anthony.
All these subsequent events can be traced back to the fatal orders of one man: Ponthius, the eunuch.
The ‘Setting Sun’
As for Pompey, if he had lived, he may well have conceded defeat to Caesar, and, if so, been allowed to keep his standing and offices in Roman society. Caesar had a record for not only pardoning his enemies but also restoring them to their previous positions of power – even if they had previously lead armies against him.
If so, then it is fascinating to wonder what Pompey would have done next. Perhaps the Roman Alexander would have become another of Caesar’s future assassins? Or perhaps his defeat at Caesar’s hands may have cowed Pompey enough to stop resisting any longer; just as he had once told Sulla, it would now have been his turn to be a ‘setting sun’ in the Roman political arena, perhaps retiring to his lands in Hispania, away from public life. All possible if not for Pompey’s untimely death on the shores of Egypt.
In Review
Whilst it was Pharsalus “that condemned the Republic to die”, it was the assassination of Pompey that resulted in the execution of that condemnation. Additionally, it may have condemned Caesar to die too. The faction opposing him had lost a figurehead, but refused to give up. Now they resorted to underhand tactics, planning to end Caesar’s reign not on the battlefield, but in the centre of Rome itself. Ultimately they would accomplish in minutes what Pompey the Great had failed to do in years of war. Mirroring the brutality of his very assassination, Caesar’s enemies in the senate stabbed him to death on the Ides of March at the foot of Pompey’s statue.
Yet consider how different this period would look if Pompey had survived. What if he had not suffered such an inhumane fate? Would he have continued the fight of the Republicans? Or would Caesar have granted him clemency instead and allowed him to live a peaceful life under his dictatorship? And what of the Ptolemaic Egyptian dynasty? Would it have survived for longer under a boy King allowed to grow and govern? All fascinating questions to consider in a world where Pompey had not died that fateful day in Egypt.
Conclusion
Pompey’s death marked the end of the Republic as Rome had known it. Triumphant in victory, Caesar proclaimed himself Dictator Perpetuo (‘Dictator for life), and began a dynasty that would last until the suicide of the emperor Nero. The Roman Republic was dead; many of its greatest men had perished with it. In its place stood an empire that would last, in some form or other, for over the next thousand years.
FYI SFC Richard WilliamsonSPC Randy ZimmermanSPC Nancy GreeneSSG Franklin BriantSSG Robert Mark OdomTSgt David L.SGT Robert PryorSgt Jim BelanusSGT Denny EspinosaSGM Gerald FifeMaj Wayne CristCSM (Join to see)LT Brad McInnisPO3 Charles StreichSSG Jeffrey LeakeCSM Bruce TregoSP5 Dennis LobergerSPC Michael Duricko, Ph.DPO3 Frederick DunnSSG Chad Henning
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